Transcript Document

十一、介词（preposition)
Prepositions are a class of structural words that
indicate various semantic relations between
words or expressions. Prepositions are usually
divided into the following three types:
1)简单介词(Simple Prepositions)
 about, across, after, against, among, around, at,
before, behind, below, beside, besides, between,
beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from,
in, like, of, off, on, over, near, past, round, since,
through, till, to, towards, under, until, up, with, per,
via;

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2)合成介词（Compound Prepositions)
 inside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout,
upon, within, without;
3)成语介词( Phrasal Prepositions)
 according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to,
because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of,
instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on
behalf of, owing to, due to, together with, up to,
with regard to next to, prior to,etc.

1、Collocation of prepositions with
adjectives, verbs and nouns
A）Prepositions after adjectives
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

Adjectives can collocate with prepositions to
form adjective phrases. Some adjectives can
only be followed by specific prepositions（eg：
rich in, intent on(一心想), indifferent to, etc), but
there are other adjectives that can collocate with
different prepositions to express different
meanings [eg: “alive to” means “having full
knowledge of”(敏感); “alive with” means
“covered with (living things)”(充满), etc].
There are also adjectives that can be followed
by different prepositions without change in
meaning, the choice of prepositions being
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determined by the noun or pronoun that follows,
eg:
Joe was very disappointed at not finding her at
home.
His parents will be disappointed with her if she
fails the exam.
B) Prepositions after verbs

Combinations of prepositions with verbs fall into
the following types:
a) Verb + preposition, eg:
I shall prevail on(说服) him to make the attempt.
You can appeal to a higher court and apply for a
fresh trial.
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He fell into(养成) the habit of not attending to other
people’s advice.
b) Verb + object + preposition, eg:
They excluded him from the club.
They took me into their confidence. 他们信任我。
These men took me for a swindler(骗子).
 上述搭配中的宾语可按语义意图加以改变。但在
词组动词结构中的名词不能随意改变：
The old widow always takes pity on some stray
cat or dog.
The report lays great emphasis on the
development of nursery schools(幼儿园) in the
area.
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c) Verb + adverb + preposition, eg:
I don’t wish to break in on (打断)your thoughts.
The family came up against（碰到） fresh problems.
She got off with (结识) him soon after she began to work
at the institution.
d) verb + object + adverb + preposition, eg:
You shouldn’t take your resentment out on(怨恨)me.
You must watch that guy, or he’ll put something over
on(捉弄)you before you know it.
C) Collocation of preposition with nouns
 These collocations may be described in two
ways:
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a) Noun + preposition

There are nouns that are usually followed by
certain prepositions:
There seems to be a solution to this problem.
A glance at this letter will convince you by its contents
that Mike is grasping at(攫取;掠夺) your money.
Is there any need for all this hurry?
b) Preposition + noun

There are also nouns that are usually preceded
by certain prepositions:

A young man should be on his guard against bad
company.
In all probability, the mail will arrive tomorrow.

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
2、 The usage of some commonlyused prepositions:
A) 表示“地点”的介词
介词
图 解
说
明
例
句
1
on
在…上面
There are five books on the desk.
桌上有五本书。
2
beneath
在…下面
The ship sank beneath the waves.
海浪把船淹没了。
3
over
在…正上
方
There is a bridge over the river. 河
上游一座桥。
4
under
在…正下
方
There is a cat under the table. 在
桌子下面有只猫。
5
above
在…之上
A plane flew above our heads. 有
一架飞机飞过我们头上。
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介词
图解
说 明
例
句
The sun has just sunk below the
horizon. 太阳刚沉没在地平线下。
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below
在…之下
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up
向上
I ran up the hill. 我跑上山。
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down
向下
The ship sailed down the river. 船
向下游行驶。
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through
穿过
The train went through a tunnel.
火车穿过山洞。
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across
横过、越
过
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at
in
The boy went across the street. 这
男孩越过马路。
at: 表示较小的地方，
He lives at a small village. 他住在
如家、村、乡村等；
一个小乡村。
in: 表示较大的地方，如
He lives in Beijing. 他住在北京。
大城市、国家、洲等。
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介词
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说
明
at
on
at + 门牌号码
on + 路名
in
①~部(包含)
on
②~边(紧邻)
to
③~方(没接触)
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例
句
He lives at No.200, Nanjing
Road. 他住在南京路200号。
He lives on Nanjing Road. 他
住在南京路。
in
on
to
Beijing is in the north of China.
北京在中国的北部。
Canada lies on the north of the
U.S. 加拿大位于美国北边。
France lies to the south of
England. 法国位于英国南方。
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B)表示“行为者”或手段的介词
介词
说
明
例
句
The novel was written by Mr.
用在被动语态之后，
Brown. 这本小说是布朗先生写
表示行为者。
的。
1
2
by
We go to school by bus. 我们
搭公共汽车上学。
用以表示手段或方
法（=借以；经；由）He reads by lamplight. 他借灯
光看书。
He shot the bird with a gun. 他
表示“工具”用with
用枪射鸟。
with 表示“行为者”用
The bird was shot by him. 这只
by
鸟被他射杀。
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C) 表示“材料”的介词
介词
1
of
说
明
例
句
用于成品与材料 The desk is made of wood.
的性质不变时
这桌子是由木材制成的。
用于成品与材料 Wine is made from grapes.
2 from
的性质已变时
酒是由葡萄酿制的。
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in
①与write,
speak, answer
等动词通用；
②做“用”解
You must write letters in ink.
你必须用墨水写信。
Can you answer it in English?
你会用英语回答吗？
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D)表示“原因、理由”的介词
介词
3
明
例
句
①表示“外在”的原因
②死因(车祸、受伤)
He was ill from overeating. 他因吃过多而生
病了。
He died from the wound. 他因伤而致死。
of
①表示“内在”的原因
②死因(病、饿、渴)
His father died of cancer. 他父亲死于癌症。
You should be ashamed of such conduct. 这
种行为你应以为耻。
I’m sick of listening to his stories. 我厌倦他的
故事。
for
①表示“一般的理由”
②常与famous, noted,
blame, punish, reward
等词连用，表示“著名、
处罚、奖赏等的理由”
Hangzhou is famous for its beautiful scenery.
杭州因风景而闻名。
He was loved by all for his honesty. 他因诚实
而受大家喜爱。
He was punished for theft. 他因偷窃而受处罚。
1 from
2
说
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E) 表示“标准或单位”的介词
1
2
3
介词
说明
例句
at
①表示程度、比率、价
格、速度
②作“以、用”解
③单价用at
总价用for
He drove at a speed of 60 miles
an hour. 他以每小时六十英里的速
度行驶。
He has sold his house at a high
price. 他以高价出售他的房子。
by
①表示度量单位
②作“以—计”
Sugar is sold by the pound. 糖以
磅出售。
I rent the house by the month. 我
以月计租这房子。
for
①表示交换
②作“用(多少)钱”
③(buy; pay; sell) s.th
for
He bought it for ten yuan. 他用十
块钱买下它。
I paid ten yuan for the book. 我花
了十元买那本书。
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F) 表示“分离、区别、夺取”的介词
介词
说明
①表示“一般性的分离”
②keep
stop
… from
1 from
hinder
prevent
(使…无法）
2
of
例句
The rain prevented me from
coming on time. 这场雨使我无
法准时到达。
A thief stole some books from
that shop. 小偷从那个店偷了几
本书。
①常和rob, relieve,
deprive, cure等动词连用。They robbed him of his money.
他们抢了他的钱。
②作“夺取、减轻、免除”
Illness deprived him of his
解。
happiness. 疾病夺去了他的幸福。
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G)表示“关于、涉及”的介词
介词
1 of
说
明
例
句
①表示“关于人或事物
He spoke of this book the other day. 他
的存在”
前些天提到这本书。
②作“关于”解
①表示“关于人或事物
He talked about his family. 他谈到他的
2 about 的详细情形”
家人。
②作“关于”解
He has written a lot of books on the
①表示“论文；演讲或
history of China. 他写了很多有关中国
一切学术上的主题”
3 on
历史的书。
②作“讨论；论及”解
Dr. Lee lectured on the atomic bomb.
4 in
作“在…方面”解
He takes an interest in science.
The country is rich in natural resources.
这个国家富有天然资源。
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Conclusion:
So much for preposition. We discussed the
classification of preposition, Collocation of
prepositions with adjectives, verbs and nouns,
and then we talked about the usage of some
commonly-used prepositions in this lecture.
Now it is time for practice…
Exercises:

When I was a schoolboy, my teacher often told us
stories ___Lei Feng.
a. on
b. about
c. for
d. to
(用于“关于”这一意义时注意与on 的区别。About指泛谈，
描述性的；on指有系统地谈，论述性的。）
1.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
There is a portrait of Chairman Mao ___the wall___the
blackboard.
a. on /above
b. over /on
c. above / over
d. over /above
There was a grocery___the street. So she went ___the
street to the grocer’s.
a. on / through
b. in / along
c. across /across
d. across / through
( across:在…前面; 横过; 穿过)
___saying goodbye to him, I didn’t see him any longer.
a. In
b. Over
c. Behind
d. After
___the wall___the opposite side stand two cupboards.
a. On / against
b. Against / on
c. Against / by
d. Against / along
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Committee members were divided ___themselves.
a. into
b. among
c. for
d. between
He sold his car___$600 for he needed money badly.
a. for
b. with
c. by
d. at
This part of the country is ___sea level.
a. under
b. beneath
c. below
d. underneath
(underneath: 完全隐蔽或者盖起来)
I can’t answer your question. It is ___my reach.
a. over
b. on
c. beyond
d. within
The streets were deserted, ___the policemen on duty.
a. except
b. except for
c. besides
d. but for
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(except for 在使用时, 其前面的句子常是肯定的, 除去的部分
和另一部分不同, 因而部分地修正了句子的主要意思。
except 意味着从整体里减去部分，因为除掉部分不适用
于前面句子中所述部分。）
11.
We didn’t know anything about it ___yesterday.
a. in
b. to
c. on
d. till
12.
I must apologize ___you for the delay in replying your
letter.
a. at
b. for
c. to
d. of
13.
It was cold that day and the little girl was shaking
___cold.
a. because
b. thanks to
c. owing of
d. with
(thank to: 由于; 多亏)
(end)
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十二) 状语从句(Adverbial Clause)

Adverbial clauses are those that perform the
function of adverbial in a complex sentence.
Semantically, this kind of clause can be
subdivided into adverbial clauses of time, place,
manner, cause, result, purpose, condition, and
concession, eg:
Whenever I met with any difficulty, he came to my help.
Where there is a will, there is a way.
You must do the exercise as I show you.
As there was no answer, I wrote again.
He had overslept, so that he was late for work.
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They climbed to the top of the building in order that they
could get a bird’s eye view of the city.
In case it rains, we won’t be able to go there on foot.
I shouldn’t have time to see him, even if he were here.
 1) 引导状语从句的连词
用法
连
词
When(当…时候)，while(当…时候), as (当…时候),
till(=until)(一直到…为止), whenever(无论何时), since(自从…
一来), after(…之后), before(…之前), by the time (that)(到了…
时候…), not long before（or when)(…不久，就…)
表
示 hardly…when (or before)=scarcely…when (or before)
1
时 =no sooner…than
(一…就)
间 as soon as = directly (when) =immediately (when or after)
= the moment (that) =the instant (that)
= the minute (that)
(一…就)
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用法
连
词
2
if(如果；假如)，unless(除非；如果不), as (or so) long
as(只要)，in case(假如)， if only (只要)， on condition
表示 (that) (只要；假如）
条件 suppose (that)= supposing (that)
= if (假如)
= provided (that)= providing (that)
3
表示
结果
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①表示“肯定目的”
that
so that
in order that
表示
目的 ②表示“否定目的”
lest
for fear (that)
in case
so…that
such…that
如此…以至于
…may (might) (为了…；以便…)
…should (以免；唯恐；为了不）
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5
6
7
表
示
原
因
as(因为)，because (因为)
now(that)
=seeing(that)
=considering(that)
=since
(因为；既然)
表示
while (而), whereas (而)
对比
表
示
让
步
If(虽然，即使), whether…or(无论),
notwithstanding(that)(虽然), (al)though (虽然), as (虽
然), for all(that) (尽管如此)
even though
even if
(即使；虽然)
no matter ~ = ~ ever (无论)
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8
9
10
表示
地方
Where(在…地方；到…地方）, wherever（任何
地方）, everywhere(that) (无论什么地方）,
anywhere（that) (无论…地方）
表示
方式
as (just)as…so （像…那样；犹如）
as if (= as though) （好像；宛如）
according as （依照）
表示
比较
than (比…更…）， the…the…(越…越…)
as…as (像…一样)
not so (or as) … as (不像…那样)
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
2)Some few notes on adverbial clauses
It may be useful to give some few notes on
the principal uses of adverbial clauses left
undiscussed so far.
A) Adverbial clauses of time

Adverbial clauses of time introduced by when, while,
as, before, after, and until can be described in terms
of “same time”, “earlier time”, and “later time”.

a) Same time
By “same time” here we mean the happening of
two simultaneous events. If the two actions are
reiterative(反复的) or habitual, the temporal clause
can be introduced by when or whenever and the
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verbs occur in the simple present or the simple
past in both the adverbial and the main clause.
The habitual use of a when- / whenever-clause
is interchangeable with an if-clause used in the
same sense, eg:
When (ever) he goes to town, he visits his aunt.
She felt ill when (ever) she ate oyster.
If he goes to town, he brings us a present.
= When (ever) he goes to town…

If the two actions are durative and last for an
equal length of time, the temporal clause can be
introduced by when or while and the verbs in
both the adverbial and the main clause may
occur in the simple past or the past progressive.
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It is also possible to use as long as to spotlight
(强调)the exactly equal length of time, eg:
The wind blew hard when the rain poured down.
I was cooking the dinner while he was playing the piano.
He worked as long as we played.
在我们工作的时候他玩儿。

In a complex sentence denoting two
simultaneous short actions, the temporal clause
may be introduced by when, as soon as, just as,
the instant, the moment, directly ,immediately,
etc. It is also possible to use hardly /
scarcely…when and no sooner … than, eg:
The dog barked the instant it heard a noise.
I had hardly left when the quarrel started.
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
In a complex sentence which indicates that one
action happens in the process of another, the
longer action is normally expressed by a
durative verb either in the progressive or in the
non-progressive, whereas the shorter action is
generally expressed by a non-progressive form.
The shorter action can also be expressed in a
when-clause following the main clause (which is
in the progressive) to represent climatic
information in narrative. It should be noted,
however, that in the latter case, the when-clause
is no longer a temporal adverbial but
corresponds to a coordinate clause introduced
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by “and (just) at that moment”, eg:
When we arrived, she was cooking the dinner.
I broke a glass while I was cleaning the room.
I was cleaning the room when I broke a glass.
= I was cleaning the room, and just at that time I broke
a glass.


b) Earlier time and later time
These terms are concerned with two or more
actions happening one after another. This kind
of temporal relationships can be expressed by
these semantically-related subordinators:
before, after, till, until, when, since, etc. eg:
She looked both ways before she crossed the road.
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After he painted the windows, he painted the doors.

When a when-clause is used to denote an
earlier action, its verb usually occurs in the
perfective aspect. This kind of when-clause
may appear either before or after the main
clause without difference in meaning, eg:
When he had painted the windows, he painted the
doors.
= He painted the doors when he had panted the
windows.

When before or after is used to indicate
sequence of time, the verb may take the
perfective or the simple form, because lexically,
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these two subordinators have already given a
clue to the temporal relationship, eg:
When I reached the station, the train had left.
I reached the station after the train (had) left.
The train (had)left before I reached the station.
B) Adverbial clauses of cause

Adverbial clause of cause are generally
introduced by because, for, since, as, now that,
seeing that, etc. As has been mentioned before,
the conjunction for sometimes behaves like a
coordinator, but at other times it functions as a
subordinator. In the present section we are going
to compare the use of for as a subordinator with
that of because.
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
a) Both because and for can denote “direct
reason” and “indirect reason”.
By “direct reason” is meant the reason given as
a cause of, or an explanation for a fact, and
“indirect reason” refers to the reason given as
an explanation for the speaker’s opinion about
a fact, eg:
We hurried because / for it was getting dark.
It must be very late because / for the streets are quite
deserted.

In denoting cause or “direct reason”, because
and for are interchangeable, but in current
speech because is preferable to for which is
commonly used in formal style and sounds
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
more or less artificial or bookish in current
speech.
In denoting cause or “direct reason”, because
and for are different in use in the following ways:
First, a because-clause is mobile; it may appear
either before or after the main clause, whereas a
for-clause can only follow rather than precede
the main clause. Secondly, a because-clause
can stand alone as a response to a why-question,
while a for-clause cannot. Thirdly, because can
be negated by not or be modified by an adverb; it
also admits of coordination by some correlatives
such as “not because … but because”, while for
cannot be used this way.
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Finally, a because- clause can function as the
focal element（强调部分） of a cleft-sentence
（分裂句）, whereas a for-clause cannot, eg：
He didn’t go to the party, because he was not invited.
Because he was not invited, he didn’t go to the party.
---- Why didn’t he go to the party?
----Because he was not invited.
He didn’t go to the party not because he was busy, but
because he was not invited.
It was because he was not invited that he didn’t go to the
party.

The above-mentioned differences are only true
of the cases where because and for are used to
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
denote “direct reason”, and no such differences
exist when they are used to denote “indirect
reason”, in which case because behaves just like
for in all the four respects mentioned above.
The conjunction for, which is also a coordinator,
can often be used to introduce an independent
clause of cause, whereas because, which is
always a subordinator, can only introduce a
dependent clause which cannot stand alone
unless it is used to answer a why-question, eg:
When I saw her in the river, I was frightened. For at that
point the currents were dangerous.
(Here because is not appropriate.)
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
b) Compared with since and as next to since
When used to denote cause, because usually
supplied new information; therefore, a becauseclause can be used as an answer to a whyquestion and as the focal element of a cleft
sentence. Since and as cannot be used this way,
because what is expressed by a since- / asclause is a kind of information supposed to be
already known to this listener:
I went to the state university chiefly because the tuition
was cheaper.
She didn’t want to go to Africa, probably because the
weather is too hot.
As Chile is a long, narrow country, the temperature
varies considerably from north to south.
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Since he has a certain talent for composition, his English
master encouraged him to write little pieces for the
college magazine.

Besides, since and as can also denote the
following meaning:

I’ll have to ask someone else, since you cann’t answer
this question. (since-clause 起补充说明的作用)
He saw her, as they were both getting off the bus at the
same time. ( as-clause 起补充说明的作用)


c)Adverbial clauses of cause can also be
introduced by in that, inasmuch as, now that and
seeing that. It should be noted that the that in
seeing that and now that can sometimes be
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omitted. This omission is especially common in
current speech, eg:
I’m in a slightly awkward position in that he is not arriving
until 10th.
What are you going to do seeing (that) they won’t agree.
Now (that) I’m here, I’d better stay for a few days.

Seeing that means “in view of the fact that” and
can sometimes be used to replace as or since.
Now that combines the meaning of cause with a
temporal sense. So in a context of present time,
now that is interchangeable with seeing that,
since, or as. But in a context of past time, now
that cannot be used to introduce an adverbial
clause, eg:
39
Now that / Seeing that / Since / As we are all here,
the meeting can begin.
Seeing that / Since / As I was in the same class as
George, I know him well. (Here now that is
impossible.)

As for the use of in that and inasmuch as,
they are restricted to formal writing only.
I’m ready to accept your proposal inasmuch as I
believe it to be the best you can offer.

d) Adverbial clauses of cause can also be
introduced by marginal subordinators such as
on the ground(s) that, for the reason that, for
fear (that), etc.
He resigned on the ground(s) that his health was
failing.
40
C) So that vs so … that

While a so that-clause can denote purpose and
result, a so…that-clause denotes result only.
When there is a pause in speech or a comma
in writing before a so that-clause, the clause
mostly denotes result; otherwise, it expresses
purpose. When there is a modal in a so thatclause, the clause mostly denotes purpose can
take either the initial or the end position,
whereas a so that-clause denoting result can
only appear at the end of the sentence, eg:

So that we can see better, we will sit nearer to the front.
We’ll sit nearer to the front so (that) we can see better.

41
The accident was so terrible (that) we can’t talk about it.

In informal style, so can be used alone to
introduce an adverbial clause of purpose or
result, and in formal style, the meaning of result
can occasionally be expressed by a clause
introduced by that without so, eg:
He must have annoyed you very much that you spoke to
him like that.
D) Unless and if …not

An unless-clause can denote a real condition as
well as an unreal condition. In a clause of real
condition, unless can sometimes be replaced by
if … not. However, this kind of replacement is
42

impossible when an unless-clause is itself in the
negative or denotes an unreal condition, eg:

We can ‘t write to Mr. White unless he sends us his
address(= if he doesn’t send us his address).

Compare:

You will get a good grade in the course unless you don’t
do your homework.
They couldn’t afford this house unless they were a
millionaire.

E) Though & although

Both though and although denote concession
and are interchangeable in many cases.
However, they are not interchangeable when a
though-clause is intensified by even.
43
The use of although is also impossible, when a
though-clause expresses hypothetical meaning
or is in inverted order. It should be noted that
although can only function as a subordinator,
while though can be used either as a
subordinator or, in informal style, as an adverb.
As an adverb, though(然而) usually takes the
end position, whereas although never occurs at
the end of a sentence.
He didn’t light the fire though / although it was very cold.

Compare:
I forgot my appointment even though my secretary
reminded me.
Though everybody desert you, I will not.
44

Clever though he was, he failed the exam.
David is over eighty. He is still writing, though.

Conclusion:

So much for adverbial clauses. In this lecture
we’ve discussed the usage of different
adverbial clause and the contrast between the
expressions with which students are easily to
get confused. Now let’s do the exercise….
Exercises:
1.
2.
___we have all the materials ready, we will begin the
new task.
a. Since that
b. But that
c. By now d. When
Stormy applause broke forth___the singer appeared
on the stage.
45
a. at the moment
b. in a moment
c. the moment
d. a moment
( 含有名词的连词: the minute, the moment, the second, the
instant, the day, the year, every time, each time, next
time等也可以引导时间状语从句。)
3.
You shall hear everything ___ you come.
a. directly
b. so far as
c. while
d. as
( 副词形的连词: directly, immediately, instantly 等也可引导
时间状语从句。）
4.
It is three years ___I last saw Bill.
a. before
b. since
c. when
d. after
5.
The church was built ___there had once been a
Roman temple.
46
6.
7.
8.
9.
a. anywhere
b. wherever
c. where
d. in which
____you live next door to Mr. Roberts, you ought to be
able to recognize him.
a. If
b. Seeing that
c. Although
d. Just as
The Italians rejected his complaints ___such sales
were no threat to the U.S.S.R.
a. on the ground of
b. by reason of
c. on the grounds that
d. because of
Mr. Manson, who holds the office of chairman, has
___heavy a load that it is difficult for him to travel.
a. such
b. so
c. quite
d. much
Your stupidity is ___ fill me with despair.
47
a. so as to
b. such that
c. so that
d. such as to
(“ such + as to + 原型 V” 这一结构也可以表示结果和程度,
一般看成是从句的省略形式。）
10. I’ll come and fetch you from the station ___you will not
have to walk as far as my house.
a. in case that
b. so that
c. for fear that
d. in case
11. He would work all day, and all night, too, ___.
a. if he was necessary
b. if need be
c. if he is necessary
d. if need to be
(if need be = if necessary)
12. ____the plane is late, what shall we do?
a. Seeing that
b. whether
48
c. Now that
d. Supposing that
[suppose / supposing (that) 意谓 “假使”]
13.
____ I admit that the problems are difficult, I don’t
agree that they cannot be solved.
a. Despite
b. As
c. Whereas
d. While
14.
____, I cannot agree to his suggestion.
a. Much as I respect him
b. Much him as I respect
c. Despite I respect him much d. Him as I respect much
(“much+as + 主语 + 谓语动词”结构引导让步状语从句。）
15.
It looks ___the uses of television in education,
entertainment, and communication are endless.
a. if
b. as if
c. just as
d. like
(end)
49
十三、定于从句（Attributive Clause)

1）引导定语从句的连词
(1)关系代词
Who(whom, whose), which, that, as, but
(2)关系副词
When, where, why, how
(3)关系形容词
Which, what

2）定语从句的用法
用法
例
句
The student who answered the question was John.
回答问题的学生是John。(修饰主语the student)
(1)
修饰
主语 The book which you lent me was interesting.
你借给我的那本书很有趣。(修饰主语the book)
50
用法
例
句
Heaven helps those who help themselves.
修饰
宾语
天助自助者。(修饰宾语those)
I lost the English book which I bought yesterday.
（修饰宾语book)
This is the house where (=in which) I lived in my
修饰主 early days. (这就是我早年住过的房子。）
语补语 This is the reason why he didn’t come. (这就是
他为何没有来的理由。）
51

说明：

(1) 定语从句又称关系从句，其作用只修饰主句
中的某一名词（或称为先行词）。
(2)凡是进行时态的定语从句，可省略关系代词和
be动词，仅用现在分词即可。
① The man (who was)driving the car was
drunk. 正在开车的那个人是喝醉了。）
② The boy (who is)sitting in the corner is
my brother. 坐在转角的那个孩子是我的弟弟。
(3)用继续性的动词,如wish, know, have, love,
belong to …, 是没有进行时态的，但定语从句
中可将动词改为现在分词。




52

The book that belongs to Sam is lost.
= The book belonging to Sam is lost.

属于山姆的那本书遗失了。
（4）凡是被动语态的定语从句，可省略关系代词
和be动词，只用过去分词即可。

The goods （which were）ordered last month
have not arrived yet.
上个月订购的货物，目前尚未到达。

I saw a girl （who was） dressed in blue.
我看见一个穿蓝衣服的女孩。
53


3）That & Which的用法
（1）That 的用法
用
法
例
句
1
I saw a boy and his dog that were
先行词为人 walking in the park.
与动物时
我看到一个男孩跟他的狗在公园散步。
2
Henry Ford was the first man that built
先行词前有 cars. 亨利•福特是第一个造汽车的人。
序数词或最 This is the most interesting book
高级修饰时 that I have ever read.
这是我曾经看过最有趣的书。
54
先行词前有
He was the only person that knew
how to open the safe.
他是唯一知道怎样开保险箱的人。
the only(唯一的);
the very(正是那个); This is the very book that I have
the same(同一的); been looking for.
这正是我在寻找的书。
all(全部)
3
Anyone that listens to him is a
fool.
任何听他说的人都是傻子。
与no, any, every等
词所组成的复合词， All the passengers that were
injured were carried to the
如：nothing,
hospital.
anything…
所有受伤的乘客都被送到医院了。
55
以疑问词
Who is the man that has white hair?
（who,
那位白发的人是谁？
which, what）
4
Which is the book that you borrowed
开头的疑问
from the library.
句，为避免
那一本书是你从图书馆借来的？
重复
It is …
that …（为
5
加强句子某
一部分）
It was Columbus that discovered
America in 1492.
在1492年发现美洲的是哥伦布。
[注]that 前面所指的是人时，可用who。
It is you who are to blame.
该受谴责的是你。
56
This is the house in that he lives. (╳)
This is the house in which he lives. (√)
=This is the house which (that) he lives in.
=This is the house where he lives.
前面不
可有
I will lend you this book, which is interesting.
6 “介词”
我要借给你这本书，因为他很有趣。
或“逗
I have two brothers, who live in Beijing.
号”
我有两个哥哥，他们目前住在北京。
注：此两句称为非限定的定语从句，不能用
that代替who或which。
57

（2）which的用法：

指人以外之生命或无生命均可用which。
用法
主
格
例句
说明
用法
宾
格
例句
说明
先行词（事物）+ which + 动词
He is likes the house which has many windows.
他喜欢有很多窗户的房子。
which当主格，前面接“事物”的先行词，后面接
“动词”，可用that代替。
先行词（事物）+ which+
主语+及物动词
主语+ 不及物动词+介词
Where is the letter which I received yesterday?
昨天我接到的信在哪里？
I like the house which he lives in.
我喜欢他住的房子。
which当宾格，前面接“事物”的先行词，后面接
含有及物动词或介词的从句。
58
用法 先行词（事物）+ which+ 名词
所
有
格
The book whose cover is green is mine.
= The book of which the cover is green is
mine.
例句 = The book the cover of which is green is
mine.
= The book with the green cover is mine.
封面是绿色的那本书是我的。
物+of which + the + N
说明 物+ whose + N =
物+ the + N + of which
59

Note:
(a) 凡做及物动词或介词之宾语的关系代词，均可省
略，但“ 介词 + 关系代词”时，关系代词不可省
略，其中的介词是由后面的介词往前移动的。
例如:
The man whom you met is my uncle.
= The man you met is my uncle. (省略whom)
例如：
The man (whom) I spoke to is my uncle. (whom 可
省略)
= The man to whom is spoke is my uncle. (whom
不可省略）
60

例：
which
The music
we are listening to is beautiful.
that
to which( O )
=The music
we are listening is beautiful.
to that (X )
我们现在听的这首音乐很美。（因that之前不可用介词。）
The is the knife
which
that
I paid fifty Yuan for.
=This is the knife for which I paid fifty Yuan.
这是我花了50块钱买的刀子。
（b）关系代词“which”指前面的词、短语或从句时，要用
“非限定从句”。
61

例：


It was raining hard, which kept us indoors.
正下大雨,使我们呆在室内。
[which 指 “it was raining hard”]
例：
He is rich, which I am not.
 他很有钱，我却不是。[which 指“rich”]

例：
He tried to escape, which was impossible.
 他想要逃走，这是不可能的。
(c) 请注意下列关代的用法：
62

and they are not married.
① He has three sons , who are not married.
, none of them are married.
, none of whom are married.
他有三个儿子，他们都未婚。
② He is not the man that he was.
= He is not what he was. （他已今非昔比。）
[关代若做be动词之补语时，只能用that或省略。]
(d)关系代词的格和插入句无关，应视其在从句里的
功用来做决定。

think /say
① Who + 主语 + believe /guess
suppose /imagine
+ 动词~
（插入句）
63
think /say
 ② whom + 主语 + believe /guess
+ to + V~
suppose /imagine
（非插入句）


例：
The man who [I thought] was my friend deceived me.
S
插入句
V
= The man [whom ]I thought to be my friend] deceived
me.
O S V (whom是thought的宾语）
我当他是我朋友的这个人欺骗了我。

4）but / as / than (准关代）的用法

“as, but, than”为准关系代词，作为其所引导从
句的主语或宾语，因而它所引导的从句是不完整
从句（缺少主语或宾语等）。
64

(1) But:

句型: no… but + V…(没有…不…)
例句：

There is no mother but loves her own children.
= There is no mother that does not love her own children.
= Every mother loves her children.
没有不爱自己子女的母亲。
 There were few people but were hurt.
= There were few people that were not hurt.
几乎没人不受伤。


说明：

But 本身含有“否定”的意思，其作用相当于“that…not”，
它前面的主句须有“否定”的词（如no, not, little, few,
hardly…等）。
65


(2) As:
as
句型： such
the same

…as +
V…
S+V
(像…一样)
例句：




He is as brave a man as ever lived.
它是世界上最勇敢的人。
He lent me as much money as he had.
他把他所有的钱借给我。
Don’t read such books as you are not worth reading.
不要读那些不值得读的书。
Read only such books as you can understand.
只去读你可能了解的书就可以了。
66


Such men as know him praise him.
=Those who know him praise him.
认识他的人都称赞他。
This is the same watch as I lost.
这表与我遗失的是同一款式。

说明:

先行词前面如有“as, such, the same”时，后面的关系代词
常用as。

(3) Than:

句型：

比较级…than +
V
(比…更…)
S+V
67

例句：



说明：




Don’t give children more money than is needed.
不要给孩子多于他们所需要的钱。
V
Children should not have more money than they need.
孩子们不可以带比需要更多的钱。
S
V
先行词前面如有“比较级”，关系代词只能用“than”。
Note:
(a) such ~ that + 完整从句(如此…以致…)
such ~ as + 不完整从句（像…这种…）
例：

He is such an honest man that we respect him.
他是如此诚实的人，以至于我们都尊敬他。
68

例：

He is such an honest man as we respect.
他是一个像我们所尊敬的这种诚实的人。

(b) the same…that(指同一人或物)

the same…as(指同种类的东西)
例：



This is the same watch that I lost yesterday.
这是我昨天所遗失的那个手表。
I had the same bicycle as you have.
我从前有一辆和你一样的自行车。
注：事实上，the same之后的关代，用as或that皆可，但
用as被视为better English, 如果后面不再加动词，则一定
用as不可用that，如：
69

例：



(c) “as”用作关系代词时，先行词可以是在它前面
的从句也可以是后面的从句。
例：



His car cost the same amount as mine.
他的汽车与我的汽车价钱一样。
She was from Hong Kong, as I knew from her accent.
由她的口音我知道她是从香港来的。
The man was a teacher, as was evident from his way
of speaking.
由那男人说话的样子可明显看出，它是个老师。
例：
70
He is nice, as (=which) is known to us.
As (√)
= Which(╳)
is known to us, he is nice.
 众所皆知，他人不错。
 [此种情况，which不可置于句首。]



(d) 下列是含有“as”的惯用语：
例：


He was late for school, as (it) is often the case (with
him) .
= As is often the case (with him), he was late for
school.
他上学迟到，对他来说是家常便饭。
[as=he was late for school]
As had been expected, he won the prize.
如一般所料，他得奖了。 [as=he won the prize]
71

5) 关系副词(relative adverb)的用法：
A) 关系副词 = 介词 + 关系代词
用法
地点(场所)
理由
时间
方式（样态）
关
副
where
why
when
how
=
In / at / on
for
In/at/on
In / by
which
(that)
which
(that)
which
(that)
which
(that)
+
介
词
关
代
先行词
the place
the way (用in)
the reason the time
the means(用by)
72
1
When
[表示时间]
2
Where
[表示地点]
3
Why
[表示理由]
4
How
[表示方式]
I know the time when(=at which) he will
come.
(我知道他来的时间。）
This is the place where(=in which) I was
born.
这就是我出生的地方。
This is the reason why (=for which) he
cannot come today.
这就是他今天不能来的理由。
Tell me how (= in which) you did it.
告诉我你做它的方式。
注:以上各句的先行词the time, the place, the reason皆可省略。
73

B)说明：

①关系代词（which)与关系副词（where /when/
why)之辨别方法：
关代+不完整从句（从句内缺主语、宾语）
关副+完整从句

比较：


This is the village which I visited last year.
(缺宾语)
This is the village where I was born.

②关系副词所引导的从句，为“形容词从句”，
因其前有先行词；若先行词省略，则其从句属
“名词从句”。

例：This is the village where I was born.
74





这是我出生的村子。这里where所引导的从句是“定语从
句，限定village。
例：This is where I was born.
这是我出生的地方。这里where所引导的从句做主语补语，
因此是“名词从句”。
③请注意how的用法：
which I study in.
This is the way in which I study.
that I study.
how I study. (╳)
= That is how I study. (那是我读书的方法。）
④表示“地点”和“时间”的关系状语从句，亦
有非限定的补述用法，其句型是：
75

~, where (= and + there)
~, when (= and + then)

例：


I came to Beijing, where I found him.
我来到北京，而在这里，我找到他。
The president will see you on Saturday, when he will
have more time to spend with you.
校长星期六见到你，那时他有较多时间跟你在一起。

6）关系形容词：

A) 关系形容词兼有形容词和连词之性质

which (而这个)
 例：
76

The poem was written in Latin, which language he
couldn’t understand.
那首诗是以拉丁文写的，而他不懂这种语言。

What (所有的)

You may bring what photos you like.
你可以带你喜欢的相片来。

说明：

①当关系形容词的which,是作非限定用法，可置
于介词之后，如：

例：I lived three years in Paris, during which time I
learned French.
77



我在巴黎住了三年，在那段期间学了法语。
②关系形容词what与名词之间可放little或few等词，
其含义为“虽是少，但把所有的都…”,如：
例：I gave her what little money I had.
我把所有的一点钱都给了她。
Conclusion:
We discussed attributive clauses in six aspects:
those relative conjunctions introducing attributive
clauses, the uses of attributive clauses, contrast
of some relative conjunctions,and the uses of
relative adverbs and relative adjective,etc. Now
let’s do some exercises…
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Exercises:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
This is the only English –Chinese dictionary ___I have.
a. what
b. as
c. that
d. which
There are many others besides me ___want to visit
your laboratory.
a. as
b. who
c. these
d. but
This depends on the purpose___exhaust steam is
used.
a. of which
b. upon which
c. with which
d. for which
I have never met such persons ___they are.
a. as
b. who
c. that
d. whom
There was not a single person there ___thought you
were right.
a. whom
b. that
c. but
d. whose
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( but 的意思谓: who…not , that /which …not )
6.
My roommates lives in a small town in central Missouri,
a quiet town___I would like to live myself.
a. where
b. which
c. that
d. on which
7.
He was one of the greatest writers ___ever lived.
a. whom
b. as
c. which
d. that
8.
The advanced worker was the person___.
a. in whose honor the prize was given
b. whose honor the prize was given
c. whom the prize was given for him
d. for him the prize was given
9.
Chinese economy has been developing at high speed
since 1978, ___everyone in the world can see.
a. such as
b. as
c. about which
d. that
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( As 引导非限定性从句, 含有“正像, 正如 ” 之类的含义“)
10.
The reason ___I’m writing is to tell you about a party
on Saturday.
a. why
b. because
c. for
d. as
11.
It was such a warm day ___ I took off my jacket.
a. when
b. that
c. as
d. so as to
12.
I’ll now introduce the candidate ___I wish to speak.
a. for support of whom
b. to support of whom
c. in support of whom
d. in his support
13.
I hope that the little ___I’ve been able to do has been
of some use.
a. that
b. this
c. what
d. which
14. The buses, ___were already full, were surrounded by
an angry crowd.
a. some b. most of them c. most of which d. many
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十四）名词性从句(Nominal Clauses)：
1)引导名次从句的连词：
①从属连词：that, whether, if (是否)
②疑问代词：what, which, who/whom/whose
③疑问副词：when, where, why, how
④复合关系代词：what, whoever, whomever,
whosever
 2)名词从句的功用：
①作主语：

That the earth is round is true.
地球为圆的是真实的。
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
What you are doing seems very difficult.
你所要做的事似乎很困难。
②作宾语：


Do you know where he lives?
你知道他住在哪里吗？
He only laughed at what we said.
他只是笑我们所说的话。[做介词at的宾语]
③作补语：


My opinion is that you should not go alone.
我的意见是你不应单独前往。[作主语opinion的补语]
My parents make me what I am today.
我父母使我有今日。[作宾语me的补语]
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④作同位语：

The fact that the earth is round is true.
地球是圆的事实是真实的。[作主语fact的同位语]
I don’t like the idea that money is
everything. [作宾语idea的同位语]
金钱就是一切，这种观点我不喜欢。

3)Some few notes on nominal clauses

A) Nominal clauses function as subject
主语从句有三类:
① … introduced by “what”：

What they are after is profit.他们追求的是利润。
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② … introduced by “that”：

It’s not your fault that this has happened.
发生了这样的事不是你的错。
③…introduced by relative pron. or relative adv.（or
whether)：


When they will come hasn’t been made public.
他们什么时候来还没有宣布。
这三类从句代表的意思是不同的，结构上也各有特点。
Note:第一类主语从句多由关系代词what引起，表示
“……所……的（东西）”，在结构上等于一个名词
加一个定语从句（a），也可由代词whatever引起，
表示“所……的一切”（b)，也可由whoever引起，
表示“一切…的人” （c）：
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a) What you need is more practice.

你需要的 是更多的练习。
What little she said has left us much to think about.
她说的短短几句话很发人深思。
b) Whatever was said here must be kept secret.
这里说的话都应当保密。
 Whatever I have is at your service.
我有的东西都可供你用。
c) Whoever comes will be welcome.
谁来都欢迎。
 Whoever wants it may have it
谁要都可以给他。
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Whoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.
谁要是看不到这一点就要犯大错误。


第二类主语从句，在大多数情况下都放到句子后
部去，而用代词 it 作形式上的主语：
It doesn’t seem likely that she will be here.
她来的可能性似乎不太大。
 Isn’t it strange that he should have left without
telling us?
真奇怪他也没说一声就走了！
 It occurred to him that he had forgotten to take his
notebook with him.
他突然想起他忘了带笔记本了。

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
在口语中连词that有时可以省略掉：
It’s good you’re so considerate.
你想得这样周到是很好的。
 It’s a pity you missed such a fine talk.
这样好的报告你没听到真遗憾。

不用it而直接把从句放在句首做主语的时候是
很少的， 间或可以这样做，这或是为了给主
语更多的强调（a），或是为了使句子前后平
衡（b）：
(a) That we need more equipment is quite obvious.

我们需要更多设备，这是很明显的。
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
That he will refuse the offer is unlikely.
他拒绝这项建议的可能性不大。
(b) That Shelley became a poet may have been due
to his mother’s influence.
雪莱成为诗人可能是受他母亲的影响。
 That theory must go hand in hand with practice is
a principle we should always keep in mind.
理论必须密切联系实际是我们应当经常记住的一条
原则。

第三类主语从句，可以直接用在句首做主语，也
可以放到句子后部去，前面用 it 作形式上的主语，
这两种结构基本上可以换用，意思上没什么差别：
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When we shall have our sports meet is still a
question.
It is still a question when we shall have our sports
meet.
Whether he will join us won’t make too much
difference.
It won’t make too much difference whether he will
join us.

如果句子是疑问形式，就只能用带it的结构：
Has it been announced when the planes are to take
off?
飞机什么时候起飞宣布了没有？

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B) Nominal clauses function as object
和主语从句一样，宾语从句也有三类：
 (1) …introduced by relative pron. or relative adv.：
Could you tell me where you are from?
你可否告诉我你是哪儿人？


(2) … introduced by “what”：


We always mean what we say.
我们向来是说话算数的。
(3) … introduced by “that”：

He requested that the Premier grant him an interview.
他请求总理接见他。
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
第一类：连接代词或副词引起的从句只是在某
些动词后能用作宾语：
Tell me what you want. 告诉我你要什么。
 I just can’t imagine how he could have done such
a thing.
我就是不能想象他怎么可能做出这样的事。
 I don’t know who wants what.
我不知谁要什么。
 Let’s see how we can raise our efficiency.
咱们看看有什么办法能提高效率。
 Have you decided whom you are to nominate as
your candidate?
你们是否已经决定提名谁做候选人了?

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

We must find out who did all this.
我们必须弄清楚这些都是谁干的。
能跟这类宾语的动词常见的有：see, say, tell, ask,
answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest,
doubt, wonder, show, discover, discuss,
understand, inform, advise等。
在这种动词后也常可用whether或if 引起的从句作
宾语：
I don’t know whether these figures are accurate.
我不知道这些数字是否准确。
 I’m wondering if the letter is overweight.
我想知道这封信是不是超重。

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
这种从句有时前面还可以有另一个宾语：
Has she informed you when they are to hold the
meeting?
她是否已经通知你他们什么时候开会？
 Please advise me which book I should read first.
请告诉我哪本书我应当先读。


有时这种从句也可以做介词的宾语：
Whether that is a good solution depends on how
you look at it.
这是不是很好的解决办法得看你们怎样看。
 He was not conscious of what an important
discovery he had made.

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他没意识到他这一发现多么重要。

在某些类型的谓语后，介词有时可以省略掉：
She hesitated (as to) whether she should take our
advice.
她犹豫不定是否要接受我们的劝告。
 He was not aware (of) what a mistake he had
committed.
他没意识到他犯了多么严重的错误。


间或我们可以用一个it代替这种从句，而把从
句移到句子后部去：

I put it to you whether that’s the best solution to
the problem.
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我提出让你考虑，究竟这是不是解决问题的最好方法。
 I leave it to you r own judgment whether you
should do it.
我让你自己判断这事是不是该做。

第二类：由关系代词型的what等引起的从句可

以比较自由地用作宾语，或使用在动词后面
(a)，或使用在介词后面(b)。
(a) I’ll try to make up what I have missed.
我将把我缺掉的补起来。
 We’ll give you whatever help you need.
我们将给予你们需要的任何帮助。
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
(b) This reminded me of what he had once told us.
这使我想起了他有一次给我们讲的话。
 She was commended for what she had done.
她做出的成绩使她受到了表扬。

间或用where引起的从句也可以用作介词的宾
语：


She walked up to where I stood.
她走到我站的地方来。
We could see the pagoda quite clearly from where
we lived.
从我们住的地方可以很清楚地看到那座宝塔。
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
第三类：用that引起的从句作宾语的情形最为
普遍，在很多动词如：say, think, insist, hope,
suppose, see, believe, agree, admit, deny,
expect, explain, confess与doubt的否定和疑问
式等后面都可以用它。这种宾语通常都紧跟在
动词后面：
The letter says that they are leaving on the 13th.
信上说他们十三号动身。
 I don’t doubt that they will be able to overcome the
difficulties.
我相信他们能够克服困难。
 We didn’t intend that things should be arranged

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like that.
事情这样安排并不是我们的本意。

在这类从句前的连词that，在有些情况下可以
不用。例如在believe, think, suppose,
presume等动词后that常不用，在say, see,
know, hear, propose, understand, be told等动
词后，连词that有时用,有时不用。

在think, believe, suppose, expect等动词引起的
宾语从句中， 有时谓语尽管是否定意思,却不用否
定形式，而将think等动词变为否定形式，这是一
个值得注意的现象。但在宾语从句中用否定结构
也是可以的。
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I don’t think you are right.
我想你是不对的。
 I don/t believe they’ve finished their work yet.
我相信他们还没有干完。
 I don’t suppose he cares, does he?
我看他不在乎，对吧？
 He doesn’t expect we need worry.
他认为我们不必着急。
 I don’t think so (=I think not).
我看情况并不如此。


有时这种宾语和谓语之间可以插入一个间接宾
语(a), 或状语(b)：
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
(a) She reminded me that I had a meeting to attend
that evening.
她提醒我晚上还有一个会要参加。
 He assured us that we would get the blueprints in
time.
他向我们保证会准时拿到图纸。

(b) He admitted to us that he had done it without the
president’s permission.
他向我们承认他做这事没得到校长的同意。
 She explained to me that she had made the
mistake chiefly out of carelessness.
她向我解释她犯这错误主要由于粗心。
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
在某些句型中，特别是带复核宾语的句子中，
that引起的从句常常移到后部去，前面用一个it
作形式上的宾语：
We all thought it a pity that the conference should
have been cancelled.
会议取消了我们都感到很遗憾。
 I took it for granted that they were not coming.
我想他们准不会来的了。
 I’ll see to it that everything is ready in time.
我负责使一切都按时准备好。


有时it可以省略：

We must bear (it) in mind that we are servants of
the people.
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我们要记住我们是人民的公仆。

用that引起的从句作介词的宾语时是很少的，只
有在except, in, but等介词后偶尔能用到：
Your thesis is quite all right except that the
organization is a bit loose.
你的论文挺不错，只是组织的有些松散。
 He differed from other people in that he always looked
farther ahead in his work.
他和别人不同的是他在工作中比别人都看得远些。

C)Nominal clauses function as predicative
用作表语的从句有三类：
(a) …introduced by “that”, (b) …introduced by
relative pron. such as “what”, (c) …introduced by
relative pron. or relative adv.
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
a. What’s troubling me is that I don’t have much
experience in this kind of work.
使我苦恼的是我做这种工作经验不多。
 But the fact remains that we are behind the other
groups.
现实情况仍旧是我们比别的组落后。

b. This is what we are firmly against.
这是我们坚决反对的。

c. Your coat is where you left it.
你的大衣就在你原来放的地方。
 That’s where we differ.
这是我们的分歧所在。
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





That was how they were defeated.
他们就是这样给打败的.
April is when the lilacs bloom.
四月是丁香花开的季节。
That is why we decided to put the discussion off.
这就是我们决定推迟讨论的原因。
Things were not as they seemed to be.
情况并不是看来的那个样子。
The question is what we should do first.
问题是我们先干什么。
So that’s who he’s working for.
所以说他就是为这种人干活的。
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
在口语中，a类句子中用的连词that间或可以
省掉：


My idea is we can get more people to help in the
work.
我的意思是我们可以找更多人来帮忙。
D) Nominal clauses function as appositive
 在某些词（如idea, fact, rumor, news, hope,
belief, thought, doubt等）后我们有时还可以
用that或连接代（副）词引起的从句作同位语，
称为同位语从句。

I had no idea that you were here.
我不知道你也在这儿。
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



We expressed the hope that they would come and
visit China again.
我们表示希望他们再次访问中国。
The fact that the prisoner was guilty was plain to
everybody.
犯人有罪这一点是人人都看得清楚的。
I’ve come from Mr. Lin with a message that he
won’t be able to see you this afternoon.
我从林先生那儿来，他让我告诉你他今天下午来不
了啦。
The explanation that he couldn’t see the car is
unsatisfactory.
他看不见那辆汽车这个解释是不能令人满意的。
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




Have you any proof that he is a thief?
你有没有证据说明他是小偷。
The news that we are having a holiday tomorrow
is not true.
明天放假的消息是不真实的。
We demanded a guarantee that no similar
incident would occur again.
我们要求保证不再发生类似事件。
There can be no doubt that he is qualified for the
job.
毫无疑问他是胜任这工作的。
Then arose the question where we were to get the
machines needed.
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这时就产生了这样一个问题：我们到哪儿去找所需
要的机器。

间或这种同位语可以不紧跟在它说明的名词后
面，而被别的词隔开：
The thought come to him that maybe the enemy
had fled the city.
他突然想起可能敌人已经逃出城。
 The order soon came that all civilians should
evacuate the village.
不久命令下来了，让所有的居民都撤出村子。
 The story goes that William Tell did kill the tyrant
with that arrow.
传说威廉•泰尔后来果真用这支箭射死了暴君。

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
另外，在probability, certainty, likelihood,
evidence等词(a)后和在on condition, on the
supposition, on the ground(s), on the
understanding, with the exception, in spite of
the fact等成语(b)后，也有时可以用从句作同
位语：
a. Obviously there was little probability that they
would succeed, but they didn’t mind.
很显然他们成功的可能性极小，但是他们不在意。
 Can you produce any evidence that he was not at
home that night?
你能不能提出证据，说明他那天夜里不在家？
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b. She went to the meeting on the supposition that
people would not assail her with questions.
她参加了这次会，心中认为人们是不会向她提许多
问题的。
 He was allowed to go swimming on condition that
he kept near the other boys.
让他去游泳的条件是他不要离开别的孩子。
Conclusion
Nominal clauses has been discussed in this
lecture. More specifically, function and types of
nominal clauses are dealt with here. Now let’s
do some exercises…
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Exercise:
I don’t care ___she will apologize to me or not.
a. whether
b. that
c. if
d. how
(表语从句、同位语从句和介词宾语从句，只能用whether连
接，而不用if; Whether 可与 or not 连用。）
2.
I don’t care ___she doesn’t come.
a. that
b. whether c. when
d. if
（从句是否定式时，一般用if ；whether 很少用在否定式从
中。Whether 引导的主语从句可置于句首，而if 则不能。）
3.
___I was uncertain about was ___they could overcome
the difficulties.
a. What / if
b. What / whether
c. That / whether
d. That / if
4.
___ fails to do this has to do it again.
a. He
b. That
c. When
d. Who
1.
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She reasoned ___if she saved $100 every month,
she’d have enough money to take a vacation.
a. as
b. except that
c. that
d. what
6.
I know nothing about his journey___he was likely to be
away for three months.
a. except that
b. except for that
c. except
d. except when
[that 一般不能在介词后引导宾语从句, 但是下面三种情况例
外：a. 在except, but , save (除…以外), notwithstanding
(虽然), 后, 可以用that 引导宾语从句.
b. 在某些固定搭配的句型中, 介词in 后也可以用that 引导的
从句, 这样的固定搭配有：
be like in that…
be different (from…) in that…
be similar (to…) in that… differ (from…) in that …
distinguish (from…) in that …
5.
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c. “动词+介词”构成的短语, 如 depend on , consist in 等, 通
常不能接that 从句。但是, 如果该短语介词后有it 作形式
宾语, 就可以接that 从句。]
7.
They will ___the computers are of high quality.
a . Answer that
b. answer for that
c. answer for it that
d. answer it for that
(answer for 适应， 符合）
8.
He ask ___have and I offered him number7.
a. which room could he
b. what room could he
c. what room he may
d. which room he could
9.
The experiment makes it evident ___the whole process
can be controlled by a computer.
a. why
b. whether
c. that
d. as
10.
The reason I didn’t go to France was ___a new job.
a. that I got
b. because I got
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c. because of getting
d. due to
( reason 做主语时, 表语从句由that 引导, 不能用because.)
11.
You have to answer my question, ___I can count on
your help.
a. whether
b. which
c. if
d. what
(同位语从句大部分用连词that 引导, 偶见由whether 或连接
副词引导, if 则不能。）
12.
What has made China ___she is today?
a. that
b. like
c. which
d. what
13.
It seemed unlikely___anyone had seen the thief
leaving the house.
a. as if
b. if
c. that
d. how
14. ___you will keep this matter strictly confidential(机密)?
a. Can we depend upon that
b. Can we depend it which
c. Can we depend on that
d. Can we depend on it that
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十五、主谓一致(Subject-verb Concord)

By subject-verb concord is meant agreement
between subject and predicate verb in
number.
1) Guiding principles
There are three principles guiding subjectverb concord; they are principles of
grammatical concord(语法一致原则), notional
concord(意义一致原则)and proximity(就近原
则)。
A) Grammatical concord

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
The principle of grammatical concord refers
to the rule that the verb must match its
subject in number. If the subject is plural, the
verb should take the plural form; if, on the
other hand, the subject is singular or is a
mass noun, the verb should take the singular
form, eg:




Both boys have their own merits.
Every girl comes on time.
Much effort is wasted.
Difficulties arise when this principle comes
into conflict with the other two principles:
principles of notional concord and principle
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of proximity.
B) Notional concord
 The principle of notional concord refers to the
rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the
subject according to the notion of number rather
than to the actual presence of the grammatical
marker for that notion, eg:


The government have asked the country to decide
by a vote.
Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.
C) Proximity
 The principle of proximity denotes agreement of
the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in
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preference to agreement with the head of the
noun phrase that functions as subject, eg:



Either may brothers or my father is coming.
No one except his own supporters agree with him.
Neither Julia nor I am going.
2) Problems of concord with nouns
ending in –s

There are quite a few nouns that end in –s
but which are not countable. Some of these
nouns are treated as singular, some as plural,
and some either as singular or as plural. All
this can be dealt with under the following
headings.
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A) Disease and game names ending in –s
 Names of disease ending in –s are mostly
treated as singular, but there are a few such
names (as measles麻疹 and rickets佝偻病)
which can be used either as singular or as
plural.
 Game names ending in –s are generally used
as singular with the exception of “cards”,
which is usually treated as plural.
B) Subject names ending in –ics
 Names of subjects ending in –ics are
generally singular nouns, but some such
nouns are treated as plural when used in
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other senses than subject names. Compare:




Acoustics(声学) is the science of sound.
The acoustics(音响效果) in the new concert hall
are faultless.
Economics(经济学) is a required course for all the
students.
The economics(经济情况) of the project are still
being considered.
C) Geographical names ending in –s
 Geographical names such as the name of
archipelagos(群岛), mountain ranges, straits
and falls are generally used as plural, except
for a few treated as singular when used as
country names, eg:
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


The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant
and animal life.
The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic
importance.
In early January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by
its worst storm since 1953.
D) Other nouns ending in –s
 Names for things made of two parts such as
scissors(剪刀), pincers(钳子), etc are usually
used as plural. But when they are preceded
by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs
of, the number form of the following verb is
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generally determined by the number marker of
the unit noun.
 Nouns usually taking plural endings such as
archives, arms and clothes are generally
used as plural with the exception of whereabouts, dramatics(戏剧学), etc. which may
be treated either as plural or as singular.
 Nouns ending in –ings such as clippings,
diggings, etc are generally used as plural with
the exception of tidings which can be used
both ways.
 There are also nouns such as barracks and
headquarters whose singular and plural
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number share the same form. These nouns
are treated as plural when used in the plural
sense, or vice versa.
3) Problems of concord with collective
nouns as subject
Collective nouns are singular in form but
plural in meaning. The choice between
grammatical and notional concord is mostly
dictated(支配) by usage.
A) Collective nouns usually used as plural
 These include people, police, cattle, militia,
poultry, vermin(害虫,歹徒),folk, youth,
clergy,crew, staff, etc:

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

The Chinese people are great people.
Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.
B)Collective nouns usually used as singular
 These include foliage, machinery, equipment,
furniture, merchandise, etc:


All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.
All the machinery in the factory is made in China.
C) Collective nouns used either as plural or
as singular
 There are collective nouns that can be used
either as plural or as singular. The choice of
the verb form following such nouns depends
on the exact meaning of the noun in a
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
specific context. When the noun is used in
the sense of a collective as a whole, the
verb takes the singular form. If, on the
other hand, the noun is used in the sense
of the individuals that make the collective,
the verb takes the plural form. Compare:



The anti-crime committee is to make its report
tomorrow.
The committee are divided in opinion about this
problem.
That group of soldiers is a top-notch(拔尖的)
fighting unit.
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
That group of soldiers have the best ratings of
individual performance.
D)A committee of, etc + plural noun
 When a plural noun is preceded by a
committee of / a board of / a panel of, the
verb usually takes the singular form, eg:

The board of directors is responsible for the
management of the company.

A committee of five men and three women is to
consider the matter.
4) Problems of concord with a
coordinate subject
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The following rules are to be observed in the
case of a coordinate subject.
A) Coordination with “and” or “both …
and”

Coordination by “and” or “both … and” is usually
treated as plural when it refers to two or more
than two persons / things, but it is treated as
singular when it refers to only one person or
thing. Compare:



Both Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar
Lake.
Rain, hail and wind have caused an estimated
$22,000,000 damage to crops and livestock.
The secretary and treasurer(出纳员) was absent from
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
the meeting.
Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.
B) Coordination with “or” / “either … or”,
“nor”/ “neither … nor”, “not only … but
also”

Here the problem of concord is generally dealt
with according to the principle of proximity. But
in informal style, items coordinated by
“neither … nor” or “not only … but also” can
sometimes be regarded as plural, eg:



My sister or my brother is likely to be at home.
Either my father or my brothers are coming.
Neither the players nor the coach was overconfident.
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
Not only the switches but also the old wiring has
been changed.
5) Problems of concord with expressions
of quantity as subject
Quantitative expression fall into two
categories: definite and indefinite.
A) Concord with expression of definite
quantity as subject
 When a definite quantity is regarded as a
single unit, the verb takes the singular from
and when used in the sense of the individuals
that constitute the quantity, the verb takes the
plural form. Compare:

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


He thought that 65 dollars was not too much to
ask.
There were 6 silver dollars in each of the
stockings.
If the subject is “a fraction / percentage + ofphrase”, the form of the verb is determined by
the noun in the of-phrase. A plural noun in
the of-phrase requires a plural verb; a
singular or a mass noun in the of-phrase is to
be followed by a singular verb, eg:


Over 60% of the city was destroyed in the war.
Two thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed
for farming.
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

If the subject is an expression of “A plus / and
B” or “A multiplied by B”, the verb can either
take the singular or the plural form. If, on the
other hand, the subject is one of “A minus B”
or “A divided by B”, the verb can only be
singular, eg:





Nearly 50% of the doctors are women.
Seven plus / and five (7 + 5) makes / make twelve.
Forty minus fifteen (40 – 15) leaves twenty-five.
Five times eight (5 x 8) is / are forty.
Forty divided by eight (40 / 8) is five.
If the subject is a noun phrase composed of
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“many a + noun” of “more than one + noun”,
this kind of noun phrase, though notionally
plural, is treated as singular:



Many a man has done his duty.
More than one game was lost.
If the subject is a plural noun preceded by “an
average of / a majority of”, the verb form is
determined by the notion of the noun phrase:
if the noun head is the word “average /
majority”, the verb should be singular; if the
head is the plural noun, the verb should be
plural. Compare:
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

An average of 25 applications a month is not
unusual.
An average of 25 persons apply each month.
6) Other problems of subject-verb
concord
There are other problems of subject-verb
concord that are worth mentioning.
A) Problems of concord with a nominal
clause as subject
 When the subject is a nominal clause
introduced by what, who, which, how, why,
whether, etc, the verb usually takes the
singular form. But when two or more such

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clauses are coordinated by and or both …
and, a plural verb is required, eg:



What caused the accident is a complete mystery.
What caused the accident and who was
responsible for it remain a mystery to us.
In SVC constructions with a what- clause as
subject, the verb usually takes the singular
form. But when the subject complement is
plural, or when the what-clause is plural in
meaning, the verb of the main clause can be
plural, eg:

What was real to him were the details of his life.
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
What are often regarded as poisonous fungi are
sometimes safely edible.
B) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite
clause as subject
 When the subject is a non-finite clause, the
verb of the main clause usually takes the
singular form. But when two or more such
clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of
the main clause takes the singular form when
the subject refers to one thing, and the plural
form when the subject refers to separate
things, eg:
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


To climb mountains requires courage.
Playing tennis is a very good exercise.
Compare:

Reading Ibsen(易卜生主义) and solving a
quadratic equation (二次方程)are entirely different
assignments.
C) Subject-verb concord in relative clauses
 In the construction of “one of + plural noun +
relative clause”, the principle of grammatical
concord is generally observed. Sometimes,
especially in British English, in order to lay
emphasis on “one”, the verb can also take
the singular form. When “one” is preceded
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by “the” or “the only”, the verb can only be
singular. Compare:



Joan is one of those people who go out of their
way to be helpful.
Jasper White is one of those rare people who
believes in ancient myths.
Keves is the only one of the players who has
learned all the rules.
D) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences
 In cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in
that-/ who- clause is generally determined by
the number of the focal element functioning
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as subject in the clause. There is one point
that should be noted: when the focal element
is “I”, the verb “to be” in the following who- /
that-clause usually agrees with “I” in both
person and number; if, on the other hand, the
focal element is “me” instead of “I”, the verb
“to be” in the following who- / that-clause
should take the third person singular number,
eg:


It is I who am to blame.
It is me that is to blame.
E) Subject-verb concord in existential
sentences
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
In existential sentences, subject-verb concord
is generally determined by the number of the
“notional subject”, but in informal style,
especially in spoken language, the verb often
agrees with the “formal subject” and takes the
singular form, even though the notional
subject is plural. When the notional subject is
a coordinate construction, the verb form goes
with the first coordinate element of the
notional subject, singular or plural, eg:


There is a note left on the desk.
There are three routes you can take.
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

There’s more grace and less carelessness.
There’s a long spring board(跳板), and three rafts
at varying distances from the shore.
Conclusion:
So much for subject-verb concord. Guiding
principles,Problems of concord with
nouns ,with collective nouns as subject, with a
coordinate subject, with expressions of
quantity as subject,and other problems of
subject-verb concord has been discussed in
this lecture. Now let’s do some exercises…
Exercises:
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___grazing on the hillside.
a. The cattles were
b. The cattle was
c. A cattle was
d. The cattle were
(有些名词形式上是单数, 却表示复数概念。）
2.
The public ___required not to leave litter in these
woods.
a. are
b. is
c. was
d. were
（集合名词在句中强调集体概念时，谓语用单数；强调个体
的单独行为时，谓语动词用复数。集合名词有：class,
club, committee, company,congress, couple, crowd,
family, government, group, majority, minority,
organization, population, public, team,etc.)
3.
Statistics ___that the population of this country will be
doubled in ten years’ time.
a. suggests
b. suggested
1.
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c. suggest
d. will suggest
(statistics 作“统计学”解时, 谓语动词用单数,作“统计数字”
解时, 谓语动词用复数。）
4.
Every means ___tried but without much result.
a. has been
b. have been
c. is
d. are
5.
His coloured-spectacles___some special function in
his job.
a. has
b. has been
c. have
d. have had
6.
This pair of scissors ___dull.
a. are
b. is
c. was
d. were
7.
Man, no less than the lower forms of life,___the
product of the evolution. (动物和人一样, 是进化的产
物。)
a. is
b. was
c. are
d. were
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( 谓语动词前的介词短语或分词短语不看作主语的组成部分。
下列词或词组连接的名词做主语时，动词的数与主语的
第一部分保持一致，因为这些词或词组并非并列连词，
而是介词或分词等。这类词与有：companied by ,
along with，apart from, as much as, as well as, aside
from, besides, but, combined with, except, in addition
to, including, like, no less than , rather than, together
with, with,etc.)
8.
Making beds, together with other light jobs,___
Grandma busy until noon everyday.
a. keep
b. is keeping
c. keeps
d. have kept
9.
No wife, no mother and no child___there to comfort
him at that time.
a. was
b. were
c. is
d. have been
10.
My colleague and former college friend___going to
Japan on business.
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a. is
b. are
c. was
d. were
11.
Not all, but only one, of the tourists___eager to visit the
museum.
a. are
b. have been
c. has been
d. is
(either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also…, or…,
not…but…等并列连词引导的短语做主语时, 谓语动词要
遵循毗邻一致的原则。）
12.
A large portion of Amily’s poems___found and
published after her death.
a. was
b. is
c. are
d. were
13.
There ___three forms of dictionary in the library.
a. is
b. was
c. are
d. have been
14.
More than one person___the flying saucer.
a. is said to have seen
b. are said to have seen
c. is said to see
d. are said to see
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(由one and a half, more than one, not one of 等短语修饰名
词时, 谓语动词用单数。）
15.
The majority of the students ___him to be reliable.
a. believes
b. are believing
c. believe
d. is believing
（由the majority of， a number of，several of 等引起的名
词短语做主语时， 谓语动词用复数。）
16.
The sick ___cured and the lost___found.
a. have been /has been
b. has been / have been
c. has been / has been
d. have been / have been
17.
Each student and each teacher___.
a. are asked to help
b. are asked for helping
c. is asked to help
d. is asked for helping
(用 and 连接的并列成分中有each, every, many a, no 等词
修饰时, 谓语动词用单数。）
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