Transcript Chapter 30: The Turbulent 60’s

Chapter 30:
The Turbulent 60’s
Presentation by:Matt Stover, Zack Jones, &
Ahmed Anik
Kennedy versus Nixon
● The 1960 Election was the first election to hold televised
presidential candidate debate
o Democrat John F. Kennedy’s success in televised
debates against Republican Richard Nixon was crucial
to JFK’s election
● Kennedy exploited the frustration Americans felt following the
USSR’s Sputnik and promised a domestic program known as
the New Frontier
● Kennedy’s victory signified the changes taking place in
American life: Kennedy symbolized youth, energy and ambition
in contrast to Eisenhower’s aging administration.
● Richard M.
Nixon lost to
John. F.
Kennedy by
only two-tenths
of 1 in the
popular vote
Election of 1960
Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War
● Kennedy gave foreign policy top priority from
the day he took office.
o
Foreign policy crises arose in Berlin, the Soviet
Union, Southeast Asia, and Cuba (NOT Mexico)
● Kennedy’s staff was heavily populated
with academics and intellectuals
o
Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor
Company, became Kennedy’s Secretary of
Defense
Flexible Response
● The first goal of the Kennedy administration
was to build up the nation’s armed forces,
both nuclear and conventional strength
o
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The US had a significant lead in nuclear power over
the Soviets by 1961 due to Eisenhower
JFK’s “flexible response” plan was to ensure that
the US would have the ability to retaliate against the
USSR in several ways & not just the nuclear threats
which the Eisenhower Administration relied on.
Crisis over Berlin
● Premier Nikita Khruschev, whom both Kennedy &
Eisenhower had to deal with, wanted to fix the issue
of skilled workers leaving East Germany through Berlin
to West Germany.
● JFK was adamant in keeping American forces in Berlin
declaring that the defense of Berlin is “essential” to “the
entire Free World.”
● Failing to reach a compromise, the Soviets built the
Berlin Wall to keep East Germans migrating to the
West.
Containment in Southeast Asia
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Kennedy advocated for financial and technical assistance to help Third World nations build
stable economies and pro-West governments, but had also relied heavily on the Green Berets
and force to fight back Communism.
Kennedy faced a major challenge in Southeast Asia as the North Vietnamese government, led
by Ho Chi Minh, directed the efforts of the Vietcong rebels in the South (which was led by
American backed Ngo Dinh Diem)
Kennedy, to fight back against communism in Vietnam, decided to increase the number of
military advisers in Vietnam but had refused to send in combat troops. The number of
American advisers in the region went from less than one thousand in 1961 to more than sixteen
thousand by late 1963.
Diem had lost the favor and support of the Vietnamese people, and Kennedy had tacitly
approved a coup that led to Diem’s overthrow and death.
Kennedy had said that the situation in Vietnam was not to be determined by the US but by
Vietnam, stating “It is their war. They are the ones who have to win or lose it.” However,
Kennedy did not withdraw from Southeast Asia in fear of communists taking over the region as
they had taken over China.
Containing Castro: The Bay of Pigs Fiasco
● The fight against communism expansion reached a peak in Cuba where
ties between the Soviet Union and Fidel Castro’s regime grew.
● Kennedy supported Cuban exiles who were against Castro, calling them
“fighters for freedom.”
● The US had masterminded an operation on April 17, 1961 which contained
fourteen hundred Cuban exiles moving ashore at the Bay of Pigs on the
southern coast of Cuba. Kennedy insisted on covert action and canceled a
planned American air strike on the beachhead, which led to the failure of
the plan.
● The Bay of Pigs Invasion was JFK’s most obvious foreign policy
disaster
Containing Castro: The Cuban Missile
Crisis
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October 1962 - Cuban missile crisis
Throughout the summer and early fall of 1962, the Soviets had armed Cuba with
missiles in fear of an American invasion of the Island.
The US had found out about these missile developments on October 14 after a U-2
flight mission took photographic evidence of the missile sites (which were near
completion).
Kennedy & his advisers had agreed to proclaim a quarantine of Cuba to stop any
new missiles from arriving and threatened an invasion if the Russians did not
cooperate and remove the missiles.
October 22 - Kennedy told the public of the missiles in Cuba and his plan to deal
with them
After six days of negotiating between US and USSR officials, Khrushchev agreed to
remove the missiles in return for Kennedy’s promise not to invade the Island
Outcome of The Cuban Missile
Crisis
● The peaceful resolution of the Cuban missile crisis helped JFK win
reelection and his popularity reached new heights.
● The crisis led to the creation of a “hot line” for direct communication
between Washington and Moscow in emergencies
● American foreign policy hawks believed that the outcome of the
Cuban Missile Crisis justified a policy of nuclear superiority
● The Cuban Missile Crisis DID NOT lead to a de-escalation of the USSoviet arms race
o Rather, the Soviets were convinced that they needed more nuclear
power and the arms race escalated
Picture: Your Tomorrow U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965
o Concerns during the Cold War Era
o
Your Tomorrow U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965 : Displayed Concerns during the Cold War Era
The New Frontier at Home
● For the first time, people who were born in the 20th
century and had entered political life after WWII were in
charge of the nation.
● Kennedy’s new administration
o Abraham Ribicoff - Secretary of health,
education and welfare
o Arthur J. Goldberg - Secretary of the interior (not
commerce)
o Robert F. Kennedy - Attorney General (MOST
CONTROVERSIAL)
The Congressional Obstacle
● Despite the Democrats holding majorities in both the
House of Representatives and the Senate, a
conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and
southern Democrats opposed all efforts at reform
o Due to this, Congress was Kennedy’s greatest
domestic obstacle as President.
● Conservative coalition were against education and
health-care proposals
Economic Advance
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Kennedy wanted to stimulate the sluggish American economy and achieve high rates of
long-term growth.
o He believed that the US had to surpass the Soviet Union in economic vitality
Stimulation of the economy came from increased appropriations for defense and space &
not social programs
Kennedy’s administration wanted to keep the inflation rate low & had relied on informal
wage and price guidelines to hold down the cost of living.
o JFK became outraged when the leaders of the Steel industry raised their
prices, publicly shaming them
Kennedy had a strained relationship with businesses, and when the stock market
suddenly fell in May 1962, many called it “the Kennedy market.”
Kennedy finally used unorthodox economic methods such as tax cuts and resulting
deficits, which improved the economy tremendously
Overall, Kennedy’s economic policy was far more successful than his legislative efforts
Moving Slowly on Civil Rights
● Kennedy had portrayed himself as crusader for African American rights during
his 1960 campaign and promised to launch an attack on segregation in the
Deep South.
● The conflict here was that he was afraid that in doing this he would be
alienating the large bloc of southern democrats.
● Kennedy defers congressional action in favor of executive leadership
● He directed his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to continue and
expand the Eisenhower administration's effort to achieve voting rights for
southern blacks.
● There was many dramatic gains for African Americans during Kennedy's
presidency because of a limited budget and reliance on voluntary cooperation
● Kennedy succeed in appointing a number of African Americans to high
government position; for example, Robert Weaver became chief of the
federal housing agency, and Thurgood Marshall, who was appointed to
The US Circuit Court after pleading the Brown v. Topeka school
Moving Slowly on Civil Rights
● The Civil Rights movement refused to accept Kennedy’s indirect
approach.
● In May 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
sponsored a freedom ride in which a biracial group attempted to
test a 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation in all
bus and train stations.
● WHen they arrived in Birmingham Alabama, the freedom riders
were attacked by a mob of angry whites. The attorney general
quickly sent in several hundred marshals to protect the freedom
riders
● Kennedy was deeply involved with the Berlin Crisis and was more
upset at the distraction the protestor created.
"I Have a Dream"
● Martin Luther King Jr. finally forced Kennedy to abandon his cautious
tactics and come out openly on behalf of racial justice.
● In 1963 King began a massive protest in Birmingham, one of the south's
most segregated cities. It was a nonviolent protest in which the authorities
handled violently
● Kennedy intervened on the side of the blacks and Congress asked for civil
rights laws
● August 1963, civil rights leaders hold a March on Washington. There were
more than 200,000 marchers who gathered for a daylong rally in front of
the Lincoln Memorial where MLK delivered his speech.
● In the end Kennedy's efforts towards civil rights paid off for African
Americans although many found it frustration in the way he handled it.
"I Have a Dream"
The issues that Martin Luther King brought up during the speech were
addressed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Supreme Court and Reform
● Defendants rights in criminal cases
● In the cases of Gideon v. Wainright, Escobedo v. Illinois, and Miranda
v. Arizona the majority decreed that the defendants had to be provided
lawyers, had to be informed of their constitutional rights, and could not
be interrogated to confess a crime without defense counsel being
present.
● Perhpas one of the most far-reaching decisions of the Warrens
Court was legislative reapportionment of the states
● 1962 : Baker vs. Carr sparks the principal of "one man, one voter"
where the Court had to redistribute it's legislative seats to give citizens
in Memphis equal representation .
The Supreme Court and Reform
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Greater social justice now achieved
Rights of the underprivileged are protected
Dissent and free expressionism protected
The reform brought on alot of criticism as many thought
the rulings extended protection to criminals and those
accused of subversive activity.
● the 1962 Engel vs. Vitale decision to ban school
prayer incensed many conservative Americans,
who saw the court as undermining moral values.
"Let Us Continue"
● The new frontier came to a sudden and violent end on
November 22, 1963, when Lee Harvey Oswald
assassinated JFK as he rode in a motorcade in
downtown dallas.
● Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took the place of
Kennedy as president.
● Lyndon Johnson promises to continue Kennedy’s
programs.
● Johnson ultimately exceeded Kennedy’s record on
economic and racial equality.
Johnson in Action
● Lyndon Johnson had a poor image on television
and was inevitably always compared to JFK
● A very effective manager of Congress
● Took on a domestic program called the Great
Society
● Concentrated on securing the passage of
Kennedy's tax and civil rights bills in 1964.
● Spring, 1964 Kennedy's tax cut is passed
Johnson in Action
Civil Rights Act of 1964
● Without the help of Republican senator Everett Dirksen, civil
rights legislation would have probably been filibustered to death
in the senate.
● Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Comission
● Banned public segregation
● Established equal employment opportunity commission to
lessen job discrimination
● Protected voting rights of African Americans
● Amended (by segregationists) to include women in an attempt to
reduce support for it
The Election of 1964
1964: Johnson launched a war on poverty which was inspired
greatly by Micheal Harrington's book, The Other America
● Programs included Head Starts, Job Corps, Community Action
Programs
● Encouraged self - help
● Rducing poverty gave him a good reputation and aided his shot
at re-election
● Johnson won in a landslide election against Republican
Barry Goldwater.
The Triumph of Reform
● 1965: Great Society legislation advanced beyond new
deal
● Medicare - mandated health insurance under the
Social Security program for those over 65
● Medicaid - program for the indigent
● Elementary and secondary Education Act - provides
more than 1 billion $ in federal aid to schools
● Voting Rights Act
African American Voter Registration
Before and After the Passage of the
Voting Rights Act of 1964
Johnson Escalates the Vietnam War
● 1965: Troop sent to Dominican Republic
● Determined not to lose "Vietnam to the
Communists
Foreign Policy
● Lyndon Johnson's foreign policy was widely
known as a mere continuation of Kennedy's
policies.
● Perhaps Johnson's greatest downfall was his
obsession with the Vietnam war.
● William Fulbright criticized johnson for his
actions surrounding the war in Vietnam as
fulbright greatly opposed the war
The Vietnam Dilemma
• 1964: Saigon on the verge of collapse
• Johnson’s initial response
– Refused to send American combat forces
– Economic aid
– Military advisers
– Covert actions
• August 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gives
Johnson authority to escalate in Vietnam
Southeast Asia and Vietnam War
Escalation
• U.S. effort intended to bring Hanoi into peace
negotiations
• Policy of secrecy and deceit to assure
Americans of Vietnam’s insignificance and keep
Vietnam from endangering the Great Society
• Johnson’s “sins” in Vietnam were secrecy,
deceit, and refusing to admit he had committed
U.S. to dangerous conflict
Stalemate
❖ American side of Vietnam War hindered by bad military
decisions
➢ 500K troops stationed in Vietnam by 68’
➢ General William Westmoreland puts emphasis on attrition-heavy war
tactics
➢ American military strategy largely dependent on the sheer quantity of
firepower
➢ All tactics unsuccessful
❖ 1965-Johnson begins to use air strikes in a desperate
attempt to improve the situation in Vietnam
➢ Failed entirely; jungle canopy shielded enemy soldiers
Years of Turmoil
❖ Public support waned as the war progressed
➢ My Lai Massacre-1968-over 200 unarmed civilians killed by American
troops under Lieutenant William Calley Jr.
❖ Johnson held largely accountable for trouble in Vietnam
as he was not upfront with the American populations
concerning the details of the war
➢ Johnson gave a false impression of winning in Vietnam; public felt lied
to after learning the truth
❖ Homefront becomes unstable as public outcry over the
war increases
❖ War in Vietnam shows no signs of slowing down
The Student Revolt
❖ First student rebellion-1964-University of California
Berkeley
➢ Leading figure-Mario Savio
❖ Two sections of student revolt
➢ Cultural Revolution
➢ Protest against Vietnam War
❖ Largest protest group-Students for a Democratic
Society (SDS)
60’s “Drug Culture”
❖ Main Concepts:
➢ Rejection of materialism
➢ Rebellion against institutions
➢ Emphasis on expression of the self
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Psychedelic art similar to surrealism
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Main drugs in use included LSD, Marijuana, & Heroin
Harvard professor Timothy Leary encouraged students to experiment with drugs,
LSD in particular
Project MK Ultra government experimentation
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Popular bands include The Grateful Dead, The Doors, & Janis Joplin
➢ Excessive use of drugs
➢ Appreciation of music
Protesting the Vietnam War
❖ Study showed those from the upper class were
significantly less likely to be drafted
➢ One of many points of protest
❖ 1967-over 100K demonstrators swarmed the pentagon
to protest the war
❖ 1968-SDS & African American Radicals take over
Columbia University
➢ NYPD took action & the protest was shut down a week later
➢ Aggressive action taken by authorities prompted many more sit-downs
& various other protests
“Black Power”
❖ “Black Power”-called for African Americans to take
matters into their own hands, usually through violence
❖ Poor living conditions & overall attitude of social reform
prompted Civil Rights movement
➢ MLK led passive anti-poverty crusade
➢ April, 1968: MLK assassinated
❖ Violent forms of protest more widespread & popular
➢ African-Americans felt passive movement wasn’t effective
➢ Primary advocate for “Black Power”-Stokely Carmichael, leader of
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
➢ “Political power comes through the barrel of a gun”
Ethnic Nationalism
❖ Other ethnic groups took after the Civil
Rights Movement
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The united effort of all ethnicities led to the Ethnic
Heritage Studies Act being passed in 72’
➢ Cesar Chavez founded the National Farm Workers’
Association (NFWA) in
❖ Chicanos won federal mandate for bilingual
education
Women’s Liberation
❖ Betty Friedan-The Feminine Mystique
➢ Claimed women felt as though they had no worth outside of
childbearing, domestic responsibilities, & limited jobs
➢ Founded National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966
❖ Multiple issues discussed
➢ 1964 Civil Rights Act aided in creating equality in the workplace
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Made it illegal to hire someone based on gender
➢ Advocated pro-choice with regards to abortion
➢ Also fought for tougher rape legislation
❖ 1972: Congress sent Equal Rights Amendment to the
states
Vietnam Undermines Johnson
❖ Failure to contain Vietcong offensive tainted Johnson’s
chances of getting reelected
❖ Nixon’s winning of the election demonstrates nation’s
desire for change concerning the war
❖ Tet Offensive of 1968 proves to be the turning point of
the war
➢ Vietnam seems unwinnable afterwards
❖ After the offensive Johnson begins preparations for a
peace negotiation
➢ Johnson decides in March to refrain from taking a second term
The Democrats Divide
❖ Anti-war movement in full swing by election time
➢ Chicago Democratic convention swamped by protest
❖ Three Democratic contenders:
➢ Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy
➢ Attorney General Robert Kennedy (assassinated during campaign)
➢ Hubert Humphrey (Selected)
❖ LBJ’s actions hurt the entire Democratic party & their
chances of winning
The Republican Resurgence
❖ Republicans, on the contrary,
firmly united behind Richard
Nixon
➢ Many counted him out after losing
62’ election for governor of
California
❖ Third party candidate George
C. Wallace stole votes from
the Democrats
➢ This allowed Nixon to defeat Hubert
Humphrey in the election of 68’
The End of an Era
❖ Election brought an end to an era of liberal
reform
❖ Republican win was a sign that many were
concerned with the new drug culture
❖ Americans were looking for a less
reactionary government & did not want to be
involved in another war like Vietnam