Transcript Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization I
HIS-101
UNIT 2 - Gods And Empires In The Ancient Near East (1700-500 BCE)
Rising Powers of the Near East
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The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a time of
transition and constant warfare
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This was due to numerous Indo-European tribes moving into
the Near East as well as Semitic tribes
By the beginning of the late Bronze Age (1500-1200 BCE),
there were a number of major powers in the Near East
Anatolia was a region that was full of natural resources
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Previous civilizations had not take advantage of this
The area had been ruled by Cappadocians but were not
organized like other civilizations
Rise of Anatolia
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Assyrians moved into Anatolia around1900 BCE
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Created a vast trade network into region and take advantage
of the resources available
Did not seek military gains
Had a profound impact:
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The became advisors to the Cappadocian kings
They also married into Cappadocian families
They brought Mesopotamian civilization and urbanization with them
The Hittites moved into central Anatolia c. 2000 BCE
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Their city-states remained independent until 1700 BCE
Rise of Anatolia
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Hittite Old Kingdom (c. 1700-c.1500 BCE)
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It was a very militaristic styled culture
Hattusilis I (c.1650–c.1620 BCE)
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Expanded the frontiers throughout the Anatolian Plateau
Controlled trade routes as a way to expand the kingdom’s economic
capabilities
“Kingdom of a Thousand Gods”
Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) continued on the success
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Expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even into Mesopotamia
Sacked the city of Babylon c.1595 BCE, leaving it in ruins
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Hittites were one of the first civilizations to use war
chariots on a widespread basis
Kassites
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Kassites moved into southern Mesopotamia in c. 2000
BCE
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Historians believe they had migrated from the Zagros
Mountains in modern Iran
Created the Middle Babylonian Kingdom (c.1531-c.1155 BCE)
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This was after the city of Babylon had been sacked by Hittites
Lack of Kassite records from the time period
They did trade extensively with the Assyrians, Hittites, and
Egyptians
They brought peace and prosperity into the region
Mitanni
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Mitanni set up their kingdom in northern Mesopotamia
(c. 1500-1360 BCE)
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They were master horse trainers
Used horses as new innovation in warfare
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This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would carry archers
into battle
They also developed excellent cavalry tactics
Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed attack by the
Hittites
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The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve as a buffer
between them and the Assyrians
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Coffin cover of King
Intef VIII
Sekhemreherhermaat
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17th Dynasty
(??? – 1566 BCE)
Second Intermediate Period
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Second Intermediate Period (c. 1783-1550 BCE)
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Due to the weak control of 13th and 14th Dynasties rulers
Military became disorganized
Hyksos invaded the delta region (c. 1750 BCE)
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Unknown origins
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Might be of western Asiatic descent
“Hyksos” was derived from heka khasewet, meaning “foreign
rulers”
This led to more instability in the region
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The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence
The Nubians to the south also broke free from Egyptian control
Second Intermediate Period
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Upper Egypt remained under Egyptian control
Hyksos took full control of Lower Egypt in 1663 BCE
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Adopted Egyptian traditions to legitimatize their rule
Made some significant cultural improvements
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Introduced bronze as a new and improved metal for making weapons
and tools
Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and a compound
bow
Introduced horse-drawn war chariots
Egyptians used new technologies to overthrow the
Hyksos
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Led by Ahmose I, who started the 18th Dynasty c.1550
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Ahmose I Battling the Hyksos
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
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New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th through
20th Dynasties
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There was a new militaristic attitude
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There were significant changes to the Egyptian style of
government
It was characterized by constant invasions and war campaigns
(“defense through offense”)
Pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent
time on campaigns
Rise of a new group: warrior aristocracy
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Made up of war commanders who grew accustomed to
working independently
Wealth acquired through war
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
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Pharaoh lost power to three strong institutions:
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18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE)
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War Nobility
Royal Bureaucracy
Priesthood
Characterized by military expansion, imperialism and
prosperity
Included some of the most powerful pharaohs in history
Ahmose I (1550-1525 BCE)
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He conquered the Hyksos and reunified Egypt
Also brought Nubia back under Egyptian control
New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)
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Thutmose I (c.1504-1492 BCE)
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Major military leader
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Nubian Rebellion
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Mastered the strategy of defense through offense
Learned tactics from the Hyksos
Thutmose led a campaign to defeat them
During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed
Thutmose supposedly hung the body from the prow of his ship
Led campaigns down south to the Fourth Cataract
Drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and Palestine
He held more territory than any other pharaoh before him
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New Kingdom
Egypt
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Hatshepsut and Thutmose III
Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)
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Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)
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She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife
Was regent for her stepson Thutmose III
She become the first female pharaoh
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Technically co-ruled with Thutmose III
She embraced all aspects of being pharaoh:
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Adopted a Horus name
Dressed in pharaonic regalia (including a false beard)
Was addressed as “His Majesty”
She had a very prosperous reign
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Her reign witnessed extensive building projects
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Including her temple at Deir el Bahri
Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)
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Hatshepsut died in 1458 BCE
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Her cause of her death was unknown until recently
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There had been no record of it
Historians had proposed both natural causes and murder
In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA
Her death was caused by an abscessed tooth
Damnatio memoriae (“Erasing from history”)
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After her death, many of her monuments were either defaced
or destroyed
Historians are mixed as to who and why someone did this
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Many suspect it was either Thutmose III or his son Amenhotep II
They speculate that Thutmose did it either as revenge or was used as
a way for either of them to legitimize their reigns
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Hatshepsut’s family tree
Thutmose III and Amenhotep II
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Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)
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Considered one of the greatest pharaohs in Egyptian history
Over the course of his life, he conducted 17 military
campaigns
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He captured over 350 cities
He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni
He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth Cataract in Nubia
Amenhotep II (1427-c.1400 BCE)
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In his military campaigns, his priority was to maintain his
father’s conquests
He did not push for the same sort of expansion Egypt had
during his father’s reign
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Akhenaten
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(1352-1336 BCE)
Rise of Amun-Ra
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Religious changes during the 18th Dynasty
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Main deity was Amun-Ra
Amun gained in popularity after the expulsion of the Hyksos
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Eventually, he was identified with the chief deity, Ra-Herakhty
(combination of Ra and Horus)
This led to the transformation of Amun into Amun-Ra
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Patron deity of the city of Thebes which was home to the pharaohs
Was viewed as the protector of the rights of the poor
This also led to his representation of Amun into the hidden aspect of
the solar deity (night) while Ra was the visible one (day)
The priesthood of Amun-Ra was incredibly powerful
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
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Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
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His original name was Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”)
Attempted to bring monotheism to Egypt
Akhenaten followed Aten as his main deity
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Aten was the sun disc itself
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It was always drawn as light or sun rays and not in human form
Changed his name to Akhenaten (“the effective spirit of Aten”)
As part of his religious changes:
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Built a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the Aten”)
Recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism)
Closed down the temples of other gods
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
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Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten?
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He may have been a revolutionary intellectual
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He may have been reactionary, upset by the blending of two
gods, Amun and Ra, into one god
He may have just been a typical politician
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He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-Ra) by using
insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten
He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of Amun’s priests by
bringing in a new religious regime
His attempt at religious change was a failure
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Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their beliefs
The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as well
Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
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Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs nor
foreign policy
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Ironically, a serious pandemic started in Egypt
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Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands
He fell out of favor with a number of important leaders
All of this led to a loss of support by the military nobility
It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza
Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was “out of
whack” and blamed the pharaoh for this
With his death, Aten fell out of favor
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Amun-Ra became the primary deity once again
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Tutankhamun
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(1333-1324 BCE)
Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE)
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Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he took the throne
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His main focus was to destroy his father’s work
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Akhentaten’s monuments were destroyed
The capital was moved back to Thebes
During his reign, there was a continued decline in
Egyptian power
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He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of Aten”)
It was changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image of Amun”)
This was especially true in terms of foreign relationships
His death at the age of 19 is still being studied
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In 2010, after DNA testing done, it is believed his death was
due to a combination of the leg injury and severe malaria
International System
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From 1500 to 1200 BCE, a complex system of trade and
diplomacy developed
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Leaders realized that wars were too costly
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During this time, there was a move from military expansionism
and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence
It was more favorable for them to be at peace and have trade
channels open
As part of his diplomacy, leaders would correspond with
one another
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A standard set of written etiquette was used
They would also exchange gifts and arrange marriages to
secure alliances
International System
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International trade also flourished during this period
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Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets
Any type of import was in high demand
Trade of goods and ideas led to greater understanding
between cultures
Increase in trade led to greater dependence on goods
from other countries
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Countries become mutually dependant on one another
economically
This could be disastrous if one country’s economy collapsed
Trade expanded into more unstable regions
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Minoan Crete
Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete
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Earliest civilization in the Aegean was found on Crete
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Minoan civilization was first discovered by Sir Arthur
Evans in 1900
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Ancient Greek civilization had its roots in Minoan civilization
Uncovered the palace of Knossos
Named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of Greek myth
The palace at Knossos was built during the Neopalatial Period
(1700-1450 BCE)
It was a thalassocracy during the late Bronze Age
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It was a sea empire with a powerful navy
Participated in expansive overseas trade throughout the
Mediterranean region
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A fresco inside Knossos
Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete
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Developed Linear-A, their written language
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Prior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more sophisticated
that the mainland Greeks
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Was not similar to any other written language of the time
They had a strong influence on the area and most likely
dominated the Greeks culturally and possibly politically
Around 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization suffered a sudden
and catastrophic collapse
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Many historians believed that the collapse was due to invasions
by the mainland Greeks
However, new evidence is coming about that the eruption of
nearby Thera had an impact
Mycenaean Greece
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Though they had been dominated by the Minoans, the
Greeks started to come into their own around 1600 BCE
Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BCE)
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Bronze Age or “pre-Hellenic” Greece
Individual city-states develop during this time
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They were theocracies headed by a king, who was also a war leader
Mycenaean Greece was a warrior society
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They prided themselves with their warrior deeds
Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and battle
scenes
They expanded their territory through military means
By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the palace at
Knossos
Mycenaean Greece
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They adopted many of the aspects of Minoan civilization
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By the 13th century BCE, Mycenaean Greece was on the
decline
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They were a thalassocracy
Transformed the Minoan Linear A alphabet into their own
Linear B—the earliest Greek writing
It started out as internal conflicts between the cities
By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended
Historians debate the cause of this collapse
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Most believe that it was internal collapse
Earthquakes, drought, famine, and disease could have played a
part
More recently, historians believe it was due to the Sea People
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The Sea People
The Sea People
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The Sea People
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Began invading the Near East in the 12th century BCE
Historians know very little about this group
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Their path of destruction started in the north
Disrupted the trade network of the Aegean region
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They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing
widespread crop failure and famine
Kingdoms faced overpopulation from those fleeing Greece
This led to widespread food shortages and warfare
Moved into Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean
bringing total destruction
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Hittite kingdom was destroyed
The Sea People
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They eventually came in contact with Egypt
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They attacked during the reign of Ramses III (c.1185 BCE) but
were quickly defeated both on land and at sea
Nearly completely destroyed Near East civilization
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Destroyed the international system
Destroyed the civilizations of the Mycenaean Greece, Hittites,
and the Kassites
Egypt and Assyria went into a long period of economic and
political decline
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This was mainly due to the loss of their major trading partners
“Bronze Age collapse”
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Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet Habu temple
Early Iron Age States
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During the early Iron Age, there are three civilizations
that develop in the eastern Mediterranean
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The Phoenicians, Philistines, and Hebrews
Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria
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Arrived in the area around 3000 BCE
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Were best known as traders and colonizers
The name Phoenicia in Greek means “purple people”
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Probably came from the Persian Gulf region
This was derived from the valuable purple-red dye, Tyrian purple,
which was made from the Murex snail
The high point of Phoenician power and culture was between
1200-800 BCE
The Phoenicians
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Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had been
controlled by Egypt
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With the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the Phoenicians were
able to wrest free from Egyptian control
Their prosperity was based on an expansion of trade
routes and accumulation of wealth
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The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus trade
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It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world
They also built colonies throughout the Mediterranean
The main impact they had was their writing system
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It was created at Byblos and was based on a Semitic alphabet
The Phoenician alphabet was later adapted and modified by
the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews
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Phoenician alphabet
in relation to other
alphabets
The Philistines
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The Philistines dominated the eastern Mediterranean
from 1100-1000 BCE
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They used their profits to raise armies to secure their
power in the region
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They were descended from one of the tribes of the Sea People
Once settled in this region, they grew olive trees and
grapevines
Quickly took power from their weaker, unorganized neighbors
Established monopolies on the economy and iron-smithing
Left no written records
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Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew histories
The Hebrews
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Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a history
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This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of
the Christian Bible
Written over the course of many centuries
Many of the works in the first five books of the Bible were
retellings of old Near East stories
After that, the information becomes more credible
In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as
wandering pastoral tribes
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They were organized into 12 tribes, each ruled by a judge
They settled in the Levant permanently by 1200 BCE
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Roughly at the same time as the Phillistines
The Hebrews
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Conflict with the Philistines forced the Hebrews to unite
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This led to the crowning of the first king of Israel
Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE)
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He had been appointed by one of the tribal judges, Samuel
The first part of Saul’s reign was successful as he defeated the
Philistines and drove them out of Israel
However, Saul lost favor with Samuel
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By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions for his battles and
popular support
Samuel decided to put his backing behind David instead
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David had been one of Saul’s lieutenants
Saul attempted numerous assassinations against David and finally
expelled from court
The Hebrews
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David became an independent mercenary fighter
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He even fought for the Philistines
He used the profits from raids to help the other leaders break
free of Saul’s control
Saul and his son were killed in battle in 1000 BCE
David (c. 1000-973 BCE)
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He was able to defeat the Philistines and captured Jerusalem
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This city was made the political and religious capital of Israel
Solomon - (973-937 BCE)
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He continued to strengthen royal power during his reign
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Unfortunately he did so through ruthlessness and brutality
He is best known for his building projects
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Many of his subjects were required to perform forced labor
The Hebrews
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When his son, Rehoboam, came to power, he planned on
keep up the harsh policies of his father
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In 922 BCE, a rebellion broke out against him and the Kingdom
of Israel broke away from Judah
Israel was now divided into two parts:
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Kingdom of Israel
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Composed of ten of the original twelve tribes with its capital in
Samaria
It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the Assyrians
Kingdom of Judah
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Composed of the other two tribes and had its capital at Jerusalem
It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586
The Assyrian Empire
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During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria was not
independent
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Their chance for independence came in 1362 BCE
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In the late Bronze Age, they were a dependency of the Mitanni
The Mitanni were occupied with fighting the Hittites
Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE)
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The governor of the city of Assur
With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the Mitanni and
declared Assyrian independence
Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites in Babylon to end
Hittite domination in the region
This began the Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-859 BCE)
Middle Assyrian Kingdom
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Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE)
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Extended the borders of the Assyrian empire through
conquest
Sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite king into
captivity
When the Babylonians rebelled against Tukulti-Ninurta, he
ransacked the temples
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He also took the statue of the city’s patron deity, Marduk, with him
This was seen as sacrilege to both the Babylonians and the Assyrians
A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by setting his
palace on fire and burning him to death
What followed was a long period of Assyrian decline as
Babylonia expanded in power
Middle Assyrian Kingdom
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Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE)
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He was a brilliant but brutal military leader
Expanded the borders of the empire to the Mediterranean
He instituted a reign of terror
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Was a brilliant administrator
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Reorganized his government by placing Assyrian administrators in the
provinces
He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the capital
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If a region did not pay tribute, they would suffer the wrath of his army
Those who opposed them were publicly tortured or killed
He also used them to build temples and monuments
The end of his reign marked the end of the Middle Assyrian
Kingdom
Neo-Assyrian Empire (859-627 BCE)
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Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE)
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He seized the throne in 744
Expanded Assyria
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When he died, many of the newly conquered lands revolted
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Subjugated Babylonia
Took Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute
Historians speculate that they thought Assyria would have a weak
ruler, as this seemed to be a pattern
Sargon II (722-705 BCE)
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This started one of the most magnificent periods in Assyrian
history
He continued to expand Assyria
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He conquering Israel and turned Judah into a vassal state
He also expanded east into Iran
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
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Sargon’s descendents helped Assyria became the
dominant power in the Near East
Why was the Neo-Assyrian Empire so successful in its
domination of the Near East?
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Not only were the kings powerful but they had competent
administrations
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Kings were seen as the earthly representative of the god Assur
It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of governors, priests, and
military leaders
Assyrians would be placed in positions of power in conquered
territories
They developed a fantastic infrastructure for the empire
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They built roads throughout the empire and set up a network of
posting stations that used relays of horses to carry messages
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
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The most important aspect was its military
There were two key characteristics of the military:
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Holy war
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As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed that their expansion
was part of a divine mission and that it was the will of Assur
Anybody who did not accept this was considered an enemy and
conquered
Reign of terror
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Other cities’ gods would be humiliated or “captured” and then the
conquered cities would also be forced to worship Assur
If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be extracted by force
The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas every year to keep
the subjects in place
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
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The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members
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It was well organized, disciplined, and diverse
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It contained an infantry, cavalry, and horse-drawn war chariots
It also had specialized units such as language interpreters, intelligence
officers, and scribes
They were well-equipped with iron weapons and armor
Because of this diversity, the army was able to use a variety of
military tactics depending on the geography of the area
Warfare was savage
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Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape, and the mass
deportations and/or enslavement of the civilian population was
commonplace
Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)
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Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare
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Had numerous siege weapons including siege towers and
battering rams
Sappers would dig tunnels to undermine the walls’ foundations
and cause them to collapse
Army would cut off supply lines so if the city did not fall, they
could be starved into submission
Their use of terror as a weapon was highly effective
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They laid waste to the land they were fighting by setting crops
on fire, smashing dams, cutting down trees and destroying
towns
They committed atrocities against people, especially those
who rebelled
Many prisoners were deported and used for labor

Assurbanipal

(669-627 BCE)
Decline of the Assyrian Empire

Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)


He was considered the last of the great rulers of Assyria
He was considered an “enlightened” king as he had received a
scholarly education since he was not first in line for the throne



He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire


Built the great library in Nineveh, the first systematically organized
library in the ancient Near East
The culture and art of the empire hit its peak during his reign
He used the same military tactics used by his predecessors
At the time of his death, the empire was at its peak


The borders were secure and the realm was largely at peace
The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory
Decline of the Assyrian Empire

By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear that the
empire was greatly over-extended



Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife between
nobles
There was also a lot of resentment by the subjects towards the
Assyrians
A coalition was formed between the Chaldeans, Medes
(Iran), and other states in Mesopotamia against Assyria


Under the leadership of the Chaldean ruler, Nabopolassar, they
successfully lead a revolt against Assyria in 626 BCE
They went on to burn down the city of Nineveh in 612 BCE

Neo-Babylonian Empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)


The Chaldeans were successful at breaking free from
Assyrian control
Nabopolassar (625-605 BCE)



Established a new monarchy in Babylonia
This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE)


He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian empire in 605 BCE
He went conquer of Syria and Palestine


This included destroying the city of Jerusalem and its temple
Tens of thousands of Hebrews were taken into Babylon in exile which
became known as the Babylonian Captivity
Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)

Nebuchadnezzar's marked a period of prosperity for the
Babylonians



The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of
ancient times



Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia
Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals
He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the seven wonders
of the ancient world
He also had built numerous temples and palaces
While the Chaldeans did not have as impressive a military
as Assyria, this empire was not going to last as long
Persian Empire

Very little is known about the Persians prior to the 6th
century BCE


Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)


While he was a prince, he organized the Persians into a single
tribe in 559 BCE and made himself king
In 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes


Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes and the
Persians began to form confederations of tribes
He made Media the first Persian satrapy or province
He then turned to the kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia


It was rich with numerous gold and silver mines
King Croesus of Lydia tried to make a preemptive strike
against Persia but failed

Cyrus the Great

(559-530 BCE)
Persian Empire

Next, Cyrus next focused on the kingdom of Babylonia



He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with little resistance
Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but kept many
Babylonians in positions of power
From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on
consolidating his empire

He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered lands



He did this by restoring temples and allowing a large amount of
religious toleration
Through his actions, he won approval the conquered nations
who accepted him as the legitimate ruler
In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle

Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the Great
Persian Empire

Cambyses II (530-522 BCE)





He was one of Cyrus’ sons
In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt
Cambyses died in 522 BCE
Because he left no heir, an intense civil war tore through
Persia for a year
Darius (521-486 BCE)


During the early part of his reign, revolts broke out
throughout the empire as many disputed his claim to the
throne
Once those were suppressed, he worked to strengthen the
empire both from the inside and out

Darius the Great

(521-486 BCE)
Persian Empire

Darius continued Cyrus’ policy of tolerance throughout
his empire


In most cases, the locals were able to retain many of their
institutions, including religious toleration
Darius reworked the empire’s infrastructure

Developed a postal system






A “post” acted as a relay stage, with no more than one day’s ride from
the next post
This also included an extensive spy network
Built the “Royal Road” which was over 1,600 miles long
Codified a legal system based on Egyptian law
Standardized coinage, weights, and measures
Reorganized the empire into twenty satrapies
Persian Empire

Darius reorganized of the military


It composed of people from all parts of the empire
Had four branches to the military





With his military, Darius expanded Persia even farther




Infantry
The “Immortals” were an elite infantry force of 10,000
Cavalry
Navy which included ships from conquered states
Conquered parts of India to the east
Conquered Thrace and Macedonia to the west
Had control of the straights into the Black Sea
By 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of the Near
East
Zoroastrianism


Another major contribution the Persians made was in
terms of religion
During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to follow
Zoroastrianism



The main tenet of Zoroastrianism is monotheism



Zoroaster (c.628-c.551 BCE) was a Persian holy man
His spiritual revelations led him to develop a more humane
religion by eliminating animal sacrifice and magic
Ahura-Mazda (“the wise lord”) was the one supreme god
He embodied and created all that was good
If Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you
explain the bad?
Zoroastrianism

Ahriman was the evil “counter-deity”



Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose between
right and wrong



He was the creator of all things evil
This explained the evil of the world
There would be a constant struggle between good and evil in
which good will win
It did not focus on the exaltation of one god but rather
promoted sinless lives, truth, and love
Zoroaster believed in individual judgment at death


If a person had done good deeds, they would go to paradise
If they did not, they would go to a sort of hell

Relief of Ahura-Mazda in Persepolis
Hebrew Monotheism

The early Hebrews worshipped many gods


Around the 10th century BCE, they focused their
attention just on Yahweh




Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the Hebrews
They believed other gods existed but refused to worship them
(monolatry)
Yahweh was viewed in a traditional way in that his “territory”
was limited to lands occupied by the Hebrews
Historians are unsure of the reasons for such a dramatic
change
Around 750 BCE Hebrew theology took another turn

The transformation to transcendent theology takes place

Yahweh is now seen as omnipotent, no longer attached to a physical
existence
Hebrew Monotheism

Hebrew religion was forced to change during Assyrian
domination




Prophets pushed to keep their unique Hebrew identity by
dropping monolatry and embracing monotheism
The prophets also encouraged the Hebrews to live ethical lives
This also included an end to ritual and sacrifice
Forced to change again during the Babylonian Captivity

As they were forced to leave the Holy Land, their tie to
Yahweh needed to changed



The Prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires, and thrones were not
important
The most important was the relationship between God and His
people
This meant that Judaism became a universal religion, not one
tied to any particular political entity or a place
Hebrew Monotheism


Many scholars feel that this adaptation of religion helped
the Hebrew religion survive such numerous attacks
In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the Hebrews back
into Jerusalem


He helped rebuild their temple
With their return to the Holy Land, their worship of
Yahweh continued

They believed that humans had obligations to their creator
rather than it having ties to a place or political entity
continued