Transcript RDCH 702: Introduction

Radiochemistry Fuel Cycle Summer School
Lecture 1: Introduction
• Readings:

Chart of the nuclides

Modern Nuclear Chemistry: Chapter 1
• Class organization

Outcomes

Grading
• History of radiation research
• Chart of the nuclides

Description and use of chart

Data
• Radiochemistry introduction

Atomic properties

Nuclear nomenclature

X-rays

Types of decays

forces
1-1
Introduction
• Fuel cycle coursed developed with support from
Department of Energy-Nuclear Energy
• Forensics course supported by DNDO
• Course designed to increase potential pool of
researchers

Nuclear forensics

Nuclear fuel

Separations

Waste forms

Safeguards

Nuclear reactors
• Fuel cycle course will emphasize the role of
radiochemistry in the nuclear fuel cycle
• Forensics course provide information of processes and
tools germane to signature determination

Date of production or separation

Method of production or separation

Techniques in production or formulation

Location of production
1-2
Course overview
• Radiochemistry center part of course

physics of radioactive decay and chemistry of radioisotopes

Intellectual intersection of the periodic table and chart of the
nuclides
• Course topics

Chart of the nuclides

Details on alpha decay, beta decay, gamma decay, and fission

Methods and data from the investigation of nuclear properties

Fundamental chemical properties in radiation and
radiochemistry

Radioisotope production and

Radiochemistry in research and technology
• Textbooks and published literature are used as reading material
• Input from students valued

Expect participation
1-3
Course overview
• Course has lecture and laboratory component
 Lectures daily
 0900-1200
 Laboratory varied
 Set laboratories to provided background
* Radiation safety
* Alpha and gamma spectroscopy
* Uranium/plutonium separations
* ZrO2 and UO2 pellet synthesis
* Others for forensics summer school
 Research on an aspect of the nuclear fuel cycle
* Assist in ongoing research projects
http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rfss/index.html
http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/nfss/index.html
• Webpage is developed as resource for students
 Lectures, readings, tests, homework, links
1-4
Outcomes
1.
2.
3.
Understand, utilize, and apply the chart of
the nuclides and table of the isotopes to
radiochemistry and nuclear technology

Bring chart of nuclide to class

Understand chart of the nuclide
structure

Access and utilize presented data

Use Table of the Isotopes
Understand the fundamentals of nuclear
structure
 Why do nuclei have shapes other than
spherical
 Relationship between shape and
behavior
Understand chemical properties of
radioelements
 Focus on actinides
 Filling of 5f electron orbitals
 Technetium, promethium
 Radioelements Z<83
1-5
Outcomes
4. Comprehend and evaluate nuclear reactions and
the production of isotopes
 Use chart of the nuclides
 Cross section data
 Reaction particles
 Neutrons, alpha, ions, photons
 Reaction energies
 Mass differences
5. Comprehend types and descriptions of
radioactive decay
 Expected decay based on location of isotope
in chart of the nuclides
 Decay modes relationship with half-life
1-6
Outcomes
6. Utilization of radiochemistry in research
 Evaluation of concentration
 Behavior of radioelements
 Exploitation of isotopes
7. Investigate modern topics in radiochemistry,
the fuel cycle, and nuclear forensics
 Research basis in laboratory
 Literature review
 Presentation of results
1-7
Course Outcomes (Forensics)
8. Understand how fission is induced and the resulting
products
 Induced fission, spontaneous fission, role of
neutron energetics and fissile isotope in fission
product distribution
9. Understand and apply radiation detection or mass
spectroscopy to determine isotope concentration or
ratios
 Isotope-energy relationships
 mass spectroscopy techniques and limitations
1-8
Course Outcomes
10. Understand fundamental components and chemistry
in the nuclear fuel cycle
 Actinide separations
 Solvent extraction and ion exchange
11. Understand the chemistry of key radionuclides in
application important to nuclear forensics
 Actinides
 Fissile components
 Enrichment
 Production from neutron reactions
 Fission products
 Production methods
 Fissile material
 Source of fission products
1-9
Course Outcomes
12. Understanding the application of analytical
methods in characterizing materials
 Radiochemical, radioanalytical,
 Microscopic
 analytical
 Mass spectroscopy, chemical
composition
1-10
Grading: Lecture course
• Pop-quizzes at end of lecture (20 %)
 Based upon presented information
• Five comprehensive quizzes (15 % each)
 Based on topic covered in lecture and pop
quizzes
• Participation (5 %)
• Goal of quizzes is material comprehension
• Nature of comprehensive quizzes
 In class or take home
Decided by students
1-11
Grading: Fuel Cycle Laboratory
• 3 groups for initial laboratories
• Write up for 3 laboratories (10 %
each)
 Radiation Safety
 Alpha and Gamma spectroscopy
 Oxide pellet synthesis
 U-Pu separation
 One report from each group
• Report on research (35 %)
 Publication manuscript form
• Presentation of research (35 %)
 15 minute presentation at end of
course
• Research requires plan of the week
 Radchem.nevada.edu
1-12
Laboratory Modules
• Radiation safety, laboratory walkthrough
 1st module taken by all students
Orientation of laboratory
• Alpha and gamma spectroscopy
 Inverse square law
 Isotopics
 Decay energy branching
 Calibration
 Measuring samples
1-13
Laboratory Modules
• Radiochemical separations
 Solvent extraction with tributylphosphate
 Separation of Pu from U
• Formation of oxide ceramics
 Precipitation from salts
 ZrO2
 Basis for formation of nuclear fuel
• Focus on concepts useful for the nuclear fuel
cycle
1-14
Grading: Laboratory
• Reports format from manuscript preparation
 Abstract
 Introduction
Background
Why is the research performed
 Experimental
Methods
Equipment
 Results and discussion
What was observed, what does it mean
 Conclusion
Restatement of main discussion points
Answers question posed in introduction
1-15
Outline: Lectures
Class #
1
Date
Topic
Monday
10-Jun (0800 start, CHEM 102) Orientation, Introduction, Chart of the
nuclides, (starting 1230) radiation safety training, Radworker II
lecture
2
Tuesday
11-Jun (0800 start, CHEM 102) Nuclear Properties, Decay Kinetics
(1100-1230) Chemical hygiene training, (starting 1300)
Laboratory orientation (90 minutes) and Radworker II dressout
(45 minutes, HRC 1st floor conference room)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
12-Jun
13-Jun
14-Jun
17-Jun
18-Jun
19-Jun
20-Jun
21-Jun
Alpha Decay, Beta Decay
Beta Decay, Gamma Decay
Quiz 1
Gamma Decay, Fission
Nuclear Models, Nuclear Reactions
Interaction of Radiation with Matter, Radiation Protection
Detectors
Quiz 2
1-16
Outline: Forensics Lectures
11
Monday
12
13
Tuesday
Wednesday
24-Jun Nuclear Energy around the World (Jarvinen, LANL)
Nuclear Weapons (Burns, LANL)
25-Jun Actinide Chemistry (Walensky, Missouri)
26-Jun Separations and the Fuel Cycle (Sudowe)
14
15
16
17
18
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
27-Jun
28-Jun
01-Jul
02-Jul
03-Jul
19
20
Thursday
Friday
04-Jul HOLIDAY
05-Jul Environmental Behavior of Radionuclides; Methods in Environmental Analysis (Sudowe)
21
22
23
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
08-Jul Nuclear Forensics Policy (Mona Dreicer, LLNL)
09-Jul Quiz 4
10-Jul Chemical Analysis of Nuclear Material, Chronometry (Lamont, LANL)
24
25
26
27
28
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
11-Jul
12-Jul
15-Jul
16-Jul
17-Jul
Mass Spectroscopy (Williams)
Reactor Modeling (Scott)
Development of Signatures; Proliferation (Wacker, PNNL)
Isotope Production Process (Fassbender)
Future of Nuclear Forensics (Connelly) , Actinides in the Environment (Sue Clark) (TBD)
29
30
Thursday
Friday
18-Jul
19-Jul
NNSS Site Visit
(Quiz 5)
Quiz 3
Nuclear Forensics at the FBI (Blankenship, FBI)
Trip to LLNL
Trip to LLNL
Separations and the Fuel Cycle (Nilsson, UC Irvine)
1-17
Outline: Fuel Cycle
11
Monday
24-Jun Tour of UCI reactor
12
13
Tuesday
Wednesday
25-Jun Tour of General Atomics
26-Jun Speciation, Technetium and fission product chemistry
14
15
16
17
18
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
27-Jun
28-Jun
01-Jul
02-Jul
03-Jul
Uranium Chemistry and Enrichment, Neptunium Chemistry
Plutonium Chemistry
Light Water Reactor Fuel (Dr. James Laidler, ANL)
Fast Reactor, Gas Cooled Reactor (Dr. James Laidler, ANL)
Fukushima Accident and Response (Dr. Wendy Pemberton, RSL)
19
20
21
22
23
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
04-Jul
05-Jul
08-Jul
09-Jul
10-Jul
Quiz 3
HOLIDAY
Americium and Curium Chemistry
Nuclear Fuel Separations (Jen Braley, Colorado School of Mines)
Chemistry in Reactor Fuel
24
25
26
27
28
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
11-Jul
12-Jul
15-Jul
16-Jul
17-Jul
Nuclear Forensics and the Fuel Cycle
Quiz 4
Fuel design considerations (Dr. James Laidler, ANL)
History of Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing (Dr. James Laidler, ANL)
Waste Forms and Repositories (Gary Cerefice)
29
30
Thursday
Friday
18-Jul NNSS Site Visit (Quiz 5)
19-Jul Presentations
1-18
Outline: Fuel Cycle Laboratories
Date
Topic
(starting 1230, CHEM 102) radiation safety training, Radworker II lecture
Monday
10-Jun
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
11-Jun
12Jun
13-Jun
14-Jun
17-Jun
18-Jun
19-Jun
20-Jun
21-Jun
24-Jun
25-Jun
26-Jun
21-Jun
16-Jul
17-Jul
18-Jul
19-Jul
(1100-1230, CHEM 102) Chemical hygiene training,
(starting 1300) Laboratory orientation (90 minutes) and Radworker II
dressout (45 minutes, HRC 1st floor conference room)
Laboratory I
Laboratory II
Laboratory III
Research presentations by program researchers
Discussion and project selection
Literature review and research project development
UCI research reactor
Tour of General Atomics
Initiation of research project
Research, reporting, and presentation development
Report and presentation development, presentation practice
NNSS Site Visit (Quiz 5)
Presentations
1-19
Outline: Forensics Laboratories
Date
Topic
(starting 1230, CHEM 102) radiation safety training, Radworker II lecture
Monday
10-Jun
Tuesday
11-Jun
(1100-1230, CHEM 102) Chemical hygiene training,
(starting 1300) Laboratory orientation (90 minutes) and Radworker II dressout
(45 minutes, HRC 1st floor conference room)
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
12-Jun
13-Jun
14-Jun
17-Jun
18-Jun
19-Jun
20-Jun
21-Jun
24-Jun
25-Jun
26-Jun
27-Jun
28-Jun
Radiation and Contamination Surveys
Counting Statistics & Shelf Ratios
Geiger-Mueller Counter
Liquid Scintillation Counting
Spectroscopy Using a NaI Detector with MCA
Alpha Spectroscopy
Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy Using a HPGe Detector
Completion of Laboratory Exercises
Exercise: Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy of Nuclear Materials
Exercise: Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy of Nuclear Materials
Preparation of Water Samples For Actinide Analysis
Separation of U, Pu and Am From Water Samples
Sample Preparation for Alpha Spectrometry
1-20
History of Radiation Research
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1896 Discovery of radioactivity

Becquerel used K2UO2(SO4)2• H2O exposed
to sunlight and placed on photographic
plates wrapped in black paper

Plates revealed an image of the uranium
crystals when developed
1898 Isolation of radium and polonium

Marie and Pierre Curie isolated from U ore
1899 Radiation into alpha, beta, and gamma
components, based on penetration of objects and
ability to cause ionization

Ernest Rutherford identified alpha
1909 Alpha particle shown to be He nucleus

Charge to mass determined by Rutherford
1911 Nuclear atom model

Plum pudding by Rutherford
1912 Development of cloud chamber by Wilson
1913 Planetary atomic model (Bohr Model)
1914 Nuclear charge determined from X rays

Determined by Moseley in Rutherford’s
laboratory
1-21
History
• 1919 Artificial transmutation by
nuclear reactions
 Rutherford bombarded 14N with
alpha particle to make 17O
• 1919 Development of mass
spectrometer
• 1928 Theory of alpha radioactivity
 Tunneling description by Gamow
• 1930 Neutrino hypothesis
 Fermi, mass less particle with ½
spin, explains beta decay
• 1932 First cyclotron
 Lawrence at UC Berkeley
1-22
History
• 1932 Discovery of neutron

Chadwick used scattering data
to calculate mass, Rutherford
knew A was about twice Z.
Lead to proton-neutron nuclear
model
• 1934 Discovery of artificial
radioactivity

Jean Frédéric Joliot & Irène
Curie showed alphas on Al
formed P
• 1938 Discovery of nuclear fission

From reaction of U with
neutrons, Hahn and Meitner
• 1942 First controlled fission reactor
• 1945 First fission bomb tested
• 1947 Development of radiocarbon
dating
4
27
1
30
0 n 15 P
2 He 13 Al 

30
30
P


15
14 Si
1-23
Radioelements
1-24
Technetium
• Confirmed in a December 1936
experiment at the University of Palermo
 Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè.
 Lawrence mailed molybdenum foil
that had been part of the deflector
in the cyclotron
 Succeeded in isolating
the isotopes 95,97Tc
 Named after
Greek word τεχνητός, meaning
artificial
 University of Palermo officials
wanted them to name their
discovery "panormium", after
the Latin name
for Palermo, Panormus
 Segre and Seaborg isolate 99mTc
1-25
Promethium
• Promethium was first produced and
characterized at ORNL in 1945 by Jacob A.
Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin and Charles
D. Coryell
• Separation and analysis of the fission products
of uranium fuel irradiated in the Graphite
Reactor
• Announced discovery in 1947
• In 1963, ion-exchange methods were used at
ORNL to prepare about 10 grams of Pm from
used nuclear fuel
1-26
Np synthesis
• Neptunium was the first synthetic transuranium element of the
actinide series discovered

isotope 239Np was produced by McMillan and Abelson in
1940 at Berkeley, California

bombarding uranium with cyclotron-produced neutrons
 238U(n,g)239U, beta decay of 239U to 239Np (t1/2=2.36 days)

Chemical properties unclear at time of discovery
 Actinide elements not in current location
 In group with W
• Chemical studies showed similar properties to U
• First evidence of 5f shell
• Macroscopic amounts
237Np

 238U(n,2n)237U
* Beta decay of 237U
 10 microgram
1-27
Pu synthesis
• Plutonium was the second transuranium element of the actinide
series to be discovered

The isotope 238Pu was produced in 1940 by Seaborg,
McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl

deuteron bombardment of U in the 60-inch cyclotron at
Berkeley, California
 238U(2H, 2n)238Np
* Beta decay of 238Np to 238Pu

Oxidation of produced Pu showed chemically different
• 239Pu produced in 1941

Uranyl nitrate in paraffin block behind Be target bombarded
with deuterium

Separation with fluorides and extraction with diethylether

Eventually showed isotope undergoes slow neutron fission
1-28
Am and Cm discovery
• Problems with identification due to chemical
differences with lower actinides
 Trivalent oxidation state
• 239Pu(4He,n)242Cm
 Chemical separation from Pu
 Identification of 238Pu daughter from alpha
decay
• Am from 239Pu in reactor
 Also formed 242Cm
• Difficulties in separating Am from Cm and
from lanthanide fission products
1-29
Bk and Cf discovery
• Required Am and Cm as targets
 Needed to produce theses isotopes in sufficient
quantities
 Milligrams
 Am from neutron reaction with Pu
 Cm from neutron reaction with Am
• 241Am(4He,2n)243Bk
 Cation exchange separation
• 242Cm(4He,n)245Cf
 Anion exchange
Dowex 50 resin at 87 °C, elute
1-30
with ammonium citrate
Einsteinium and Fermium
• Debris from Mike test
 1st thermonuclear test
• New isotopes of Pu
 244 and 246
 Successive neutron capture
of 238U
 Correlation of log yield versus
atomic mass
• Evidence for production of
transcalifornium isotopes
 Heavy U isotopes followed by
beta decay
• Ion exchange used to demonstrate
new isotopes
1-31
Md, No, and Lr discovery
• 1st atom-at-a-time chemistry
 253Es(4H,n)256Md
• Required high degree of chemical separation
• Use catcher foil
 Recoil of product onto foil
 Dissolved Au foil, then ion exchange
• Nobelium controversy
 Expected to have trivalent chemistry
 1st attempt could not be reproduced
 Showed divalent oxidation state
 246Cm(12C,4n)254No
 Alpha decay from 254No
 Identification of 250Fm daughter using ion
exchange
• For Lr 249, 250, 251Cf bombarded with 10,11B
• New isotope with 8.6 MeV, 6 second half life
 Identified at 258Lr
1-32
Types of Decay
1.  decay (occurs among the heavier elements)
226
88
Ra Rn   Energy
222
86
4
2
2.  decay
131
53

I 131
Xe


  Energy
54
3. Positron emission
22
11
Na Ne     Energy

22
10
4. Electron capture
26
13
Al    Mg   Energy

26
12
5. Spontaneous fission
Cf  Xe Ru 4 n  Energy
252
98
140
54
108
44
1
0
1-33
Fission Products
• Fission yield curve varies with fissile isotope
• 2 peak areas for U and Pu thermal neutron induced fission
• Variation in light fragment peak
235U fission yield
• Influence of neutron energy observed
1-34
Photon emission
• Gamma decay
 Emission of photon from excited nucleus
 Metastable nuclide (i.e., 99mTc)
 Following decay to excited daughter state
• X-ray
 Electron from a lower level is removed
 electrons from higher levels occupy resulting
vacancy with photon emission
 De-acceleration of high energy electrons
 Electron transitions from inner orbitals
 X-ray production
 Bombardment of metal with high energy electrons
 Secondary x-ray fluorescence by primary x-rays
 Radioactive sources
 Synchrotron sources
1-35
X-rays
•
•
•
•
Removal of K shell electrons

Electrons coming from the
higher levels will emit photons
while falling to this K shell
 series of rays (frequency 
or wavelength l) are
noted as K, K, Kg
 If the removed electrons
are from the L shell,
noted as L, L, Lg
In 1913 Moseley studied these
frequencies , showing that:
Lg
L
O
N
M
K
K
L
L
K
  A(Z  Zo )
where Z is the atomic number and, A
and Z0 are constants depending on
the observed transition.
K series, Z0 = 1, L series, Z0 = 7.4.
1-36
Chart of the Nuclides
• Presentation of data on nuclides

Information on chemical element

Nuclide information
 Spin and parity (0+ for even-even nuclides)
 Fission yield

Stable isotope
 Isotopic abundance
 Reaction cross sections
 Mass
• Radioactive isotope

Half-life

Modes of decay and energies

Beta disintegration energies

Isomeric states

Natural decay series

Reaction cross sections
• Fission yields for isobars
1-37
Chart of Nuclides
• Decay modes
 Alpha
 Beta
 Positron
 Photon
 Electron capture
 Isomeric transition
 Internal conversion
 Spontaneous fission
 Cluster decay
1-38
Chart of the Nuclides Questions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How many stable isotopes of Ni?
What is the mass and isotopic abundance of 84Sr?
Spin and parity of 201Hg?
Decay modes and decay energies of 212Bi
What are the isotopes in the 235U decay series?
What is the half-life of 176Lu?
What is the half-life of 176Yb
How is 238Pu produced?
How is 239Pu made from 238U
Which actinide isotopes are likely to undergo
neutron induced fission?
• Which isotopes are likely to undergo alpha decay?
1-39
Table of the Isotopes
• Detailed information about each isotope
 Mass chain decay scheme
 mass excess (M-A)
Mass difference, units in energy (MeV)
 particle separation energy
 Populating reactions and decay modes
 Gamma data
Transitions, % intensities
 Decay levels
Energy, spin, parity, half-life
 Structure drawing
1-40
1-41
Radiochemistry Introduction
•
•
Radiochemistry

Chemistry of the radioactive isotopes and elements

Utilization of nuclear properties in evaluating and understanding chemistry

Intersection of chart of the nuclides and periodic table
Atom

Z and N in nucleus (10-14 m)

Electron interaction with nucleus basis of chemical properties (10-10 m)
 Electrons can be excited
* Higher energy orbitals
* Ionization
 Binding energy of electron effects ionization

Isotopes
 Same Z different N

Isobar
 Same A (sum of Z and N)
A

Isotone
Z
N
 Same N, different Z

Isomer
 Nuclide in excited state
 99mTc
ChemicalSymbol
1-42
Terms and decay modes: Utilization of
chart of the nuclides
• Identify the isomer, isobars, isotones, and isotopes
 60mCo, 57Co, 97Nb, 58Co, 57Ni, 57Fe, 59Ni, 99mTc
• Identify the daughter from the decay of the following
isotopes
 210Po (alpha decay, 206Pb)
 196Pb
 204Bi (EC decay, 204Pb)
 209Pb
 222At
 212Bi (both alpha and beta decay)
 208Pb (stable)
• How is 14C naturally produced
 Reactions with atmosphere (14N as target)
• Identify 5 naturally occurring radionuclides with Z<84
1-43
Half Lives
N/No=e-lt
N=Noe- lt
l=(ln 2)/t1/2
l is decay constant
No=number at time zero
(atoms, mass, moles)
N= number at time t
Rate of decay of 131I as a function of time.
1-44
Equation questions
• Calculate decay constant for the following
Isotope
t1/2
l
l (s-1)
75Se
119.78 days
5.79E-3 d-1
6.78E-8
74mGa
10 seconds
6.93E-2 s-1
6.93E-2
81Zn
0.32 seconds
2.17 s-1
2.17
137Cs
30.07 years
2.31E-2 a-1
7.30E-10
239Pu
2.41E4 years
2.88E-5 a-1
9.11E-13

75Se
example
 l ln(2)/119.78 day = 0.00579 d-1
l= 0.00579 d-1 *1d/24 hr * 1 hr/3600 s
=6.7E-8 s-1
1-45
Equation Questions
• What percentage of 66As remains from a given amount
after 0.5 seconds
 Use N/No=e-lt
t1/2 = 95.6 ms; l=7.25 s-1
N/No=e-lt = N=/No=e-7.25(.5) = 0.0266 =2.66 %
* After 5.23 half lives
• How long would it take to decay 90 % of 65Zn?
 Use N/No=e-lt
 90 % decay means 10 % remains
Set N/No=0.1, t1/2 = 244 d, l= 2.84E-3 d-1
0.1=e-2.84E-3t
ln(0.1)= -2.84E-3 d-1 t
=-2.30/-2.84E-3 d-1 = t =810 days
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Equation Questions
• If you have 1 g of 72Se initially, how much
remains in 12 days?
 t1/2 = 8.5 d, l=8.15E-2 d-1
 N=Noe- lt
 N=(1 g) e- 8.15E-2(12)
 N=0.376 g
• What if you started with 10000 atoms of 72Se,
how many atoms after 12 days?
 0.376 (37.6 %) remains
 10000(0.376) = 3760 atoms
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What holds the nucleus together: Forces in
nature
• Four fundamental
forces in nature
• Gravity

Weakest force

interacting
massive objects
• Weak interaction

Beta decay
• Electromagnetic
force

Most
observable
interactions
• Strong interaction

Nuclear
properties
1-48
Particle Physics: Boundary of Course
• fundamental particles of nature and interaction
symmetries
• Particles classified as fermions or bosons
 Fermions obey the Pauli principle
 antisymmetric wave functions
 half-integer spins
* Neutrons, protons and electrons
 Bosons do not obey Pauli principle
* symmetric wave functions and integer spins
 Photons
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Standard Model
• Boson are force carriers
 Photon, W and Z bosons, gluon
 Integer spin
1-50
Topic review
• History of nuclear physics research
• Discovery of the radioelements
 Methods and techniques used
• Types of radioactive decay
• Understand and utilize the data presented in the
chart of the nuclides
• Utilize the fundamental decay equations
• Identify common fission products
• Define X-rays
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Study Questions
• What are the course outcomes?
• What were important historical moments in
radiochemistry?
• Who were the important scientists in the
investigation of nuclear properties?
• What are the different types of radioactive
decay?
• What are some commonalities in the discovery
of the actinides?
• Provide 5 radioelements
1-52
Pop Quiz
• Provide 10 facts about 239Pu using the chart of
the nuclide or the table of the isotopes
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