Transcript household potable water demand

TITLE
HOUSEHOLD POTABLE WATER DEMAND: LINKING
AGRO FORESTRY TO SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN
URBAN AND RURAL AREAS IN GAROUA, A MAJOR
TOWN IN THE SAHELIAN REGION OF CAMEROON.
By:
Dr. Ndjomguem Tuma Clement-Pierre
Agro-biologist
Researcher
Director, “NGO” SAVE THE NATURE
P. O. Box 51 Buea, S.W.P – Cameroon
Tel: 00(237) 77 92 01 90
E-mail: [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
With a sustained population growth, Sub-Saharan African cities face
the headache of urban water demand management. Garoua the head
town of North Province of Cameroon is no exception of this role.
At the start of the project, the water supply infrastructure had fallen
into disrepair because of economic crisis and people here were
unwillingly drinking contaminated water. Indeed, there was no
system in place for monitoring water quality nor regulation to
preserve the quality of water sources that supplied the Community
aqueducts. Water quality and supply problems were being caused by
increased deforestation, land erosion, the expansion of farming
borders, the excessive use of pesticides in the vicinity of water
sources, the unregulated development of new human settlements
near water sources and the inadequate management of solid waste
and wastewater.
The water management scheme practiced in Cameroon, particularly
in the study area of this research project was “vertical”, that is,
imposed from above, and did not take into account the opinion and
requirements of the local users.
Real sustainable development can be achieved if communities
participate in the entire process of a project, which means providing
training and organization and raising awareness.
GOAL
The Goal of this project is to provide information that would enhance
and facilitate the process of potable water supply, its implications on
the production process relevant to the poor, catchments management
and environmental health.
OBJECTIVES:
The research is aimed at improving water management and
conservation for poverty reduction, inducing attitudinal and behavioral
changing with respect to sustainable water and environmental
management at various levels; and create new knowledge and building
capacity of the communities for efficient water management.
DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH AREA
Garoua has a population of some 450.000 inhabitants. It is mainly
composed of Foulbe origin and comprises migrants from neighbouring
country like Chad, Nigeria, Central African Republic, with a small
number of Toupouri, Mousgoun and Bamileke from the country’s
interior.
The Sehelian climate here has a wet season between April and
September; while the rest of the year is dry. Average annual
precipitation for this region is between 1000 and 1,750 mm (39 to 69
inches). The average temperature is 25º - 30º in rainy season and 25º
- 45º in the dry season
The topology of the Garoua city shows that the area is composed of
numerous micro-water sheds, and rivers tend to be short and have a
notably reduced flow during the dry season. During the rainy season,
the rivers rapidly erode the local acidic and clay soils, used for livestock
and subsistence farming, and cause flooding in the lower parts of
watersheds where most of the local Population live.
RESEARCH APPROACH
The research project was implemented using Participatory
Action Research (PAR) approach. In essence, PAR is a problem
solving, iterative and systematic approach to research
whereby a range of “intellectual resources” are drawn upon to
find a solution to a problem or to improve current practices
(Phillips and push, 1994).
The first phase consisted of an orientation and familiarization
survey of the selected urban area (Garoua). This provided an
opportunity to make initial contact with the respective quarter
heads, men and women and local associations, thereby
introducing the research project and identifying some of their
main issues and concerns. The project was planned and
formulated at this phase based on proposals and
recommendations made by the community leaders for a set of
goals, objectives and activities, which gave it strong
institutional and community support. Women , in particular,
played a special role, considering the fact that they are the
ones mainly responsible for water supply and use.
The second phase consisted of a house hold survey in which
semi-structured interviews were used to collect data on:
Quality and quantity of the water supply
Physical and environmental conditions of water sources
Newly identified water sources
Physical condition of equipment, storage tanks and distribution
lines;
Daily water supply service during both dry and rainy season;
Water use and disposal of waste water.
Solid waste management
Results showed that, in general;
The population was not involved with water supply services
and perceived them to be service provided by the Government
of Cameroon,
Drinking water quality was very poor and in most communities
contained faucal coliform bacteria and physical and chemical
contaminants.
Five sources of water were available and have been used (see
graphic).
Percentages
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Natural Sources
Well Water
Pipe Born (Tap
Water)
Rain Water
Bottled Water
Sources of Water
As indicated in above table communities were using natural
sources, well water, bottled water and rain water in rainy
season than tap water. It’s the fact that tap water (pipe borne
water) usually flows through energy-efficient infrastructure.
Understandably, supply irregularities exist as a result of the
fact that Cameroon has only one major water company which
is the “Société Nationale des Eaux du Cameroun (SNEC) with
majority shares owned by Cameroon Government in crisis.
Bottled water has problems of its own; it leaves a flood of
non-biodegradable and rarely recycled containers in its wake.
Wastewater and solid waste disposal
Wastewater and solid waste disposal practices were deficient;
During this data collection phase, or ‘participative diagnosis, the
interviewers were trained to highlight the fact that this was a project
prepared by the community and aimed at solving its problems. Efforts
were also made to keep the local people up to date with the findings.
For example, results from biological, chemical and physical water
analyses and their impact on health were presented to the
community leaders in terms that could be understood by all. The
results revealed that, owing to lack of protected water sources and
deficient tank and pipeline management, the water being provided to
most communities was highly contaminated. This surprised the local
people, who had always assumed that their water supply was safe,
and there was an immediate agreement to support the
implementation of the project’s recommendations.
Priority tasks included defining the maximum theoretical area of the
water sources; preventing further waste disposal into them,
protecting them from wild and domestic animals by erecting living
fences and protecting surrounding forest areas by planting Moringa
Olifera trees. Many variety of seeds were distributed to Communities
after they have been trained to plant them.
The third phase started after three years of intensive work
with the assistance of the research area community. It
consisted exclusively of training and practical experiences. The
new availability of safe drinking water was presented to the
local population, especially women during training sessions on
safe drinking water issues using moringa oleifera seeds and
filter and such environmental topics as the water cycle, the
water-shed concept, surface waters and aquifers, waste water
and other pollution sources, variability and climate change,
soil erosion and reforestation and the sustainable use of
natural resources. All this helped to increase the communities’
understanding of their interactions with the environment and
to create a basis for a new water culture.
TREATMENT OF WATER WITH MORINGA OLEIFERA
Moringa oleifera is a fast growing, aesthetically pleasing small
tree adapted to arid, sandy condition. The species is
characterized by its long, drumstick shaped pods that contain
its seeds within the first year of growth, Moringa has been
shown to grow up to 4 meters and can bear fruit within the
same first years. For centuries indigenous in northern India
and many parts of Africa have known the many benefits of
Moringa Oleifera.
Moringa Oleifera seeds treat water at two levels, acting as
both a coagulant as well as an antimicrobial agent. It is
generally accepted that Moringa works as a coagulant due to
positively charged water-soluble proteins which bind with
negatively charged particles ‘silt, clay, bacteria, toxins etc’
allowing the resulting ‘flocks’ to settle to the bottom or be
removed by filtration. It is accepted that Moringa treatment
will remove 90-99% of the impurities in water. Solutions of
Moringa seeds for water treatment may be prepared from
either kernels or from the solid residue left over after oil
extraction (presscake) Moringa seeds, seed kernels or dried
press cake can be stored but solutions for treating water
should be prepared fresh each time.
mature seeds and crush the white kernels to obtain a fine
powder (do not use discolored seeds). Add 5ml (1 teaspoon) of
powder to 250ml (1 cup) of clean water and shake for 1
minute to activate the coagulant properties. Filter this solution
through a clean cloth into the 10 liters of water to be treated.
Stir the water rapidly for at least 1 minute, then slowly (15 –
20 rotations per minute) for 5 – 10 minutes. Let the water sit
without disturbing for at least one hour. After the particles and
contaminates have settled, the clear water from the top can be
used.
DOSAGE RATES:
Low turbidity NTV<50
1 seed per 4 liters
water
Medium turbidity NTV 50 – 150
1 seed per 2 liters water
High turbidity NTV 150 – 250
1 seed per 1 liter
water
Extreme turbidity NTV > 250
2 seeds per 1 liter
water
REMARKS
The process of shaking must be followed closely to activate
the coagulant properties; if the flocculation process takes too
long, there is a risk of secondary bacteria growth during
flocculation.
The process of settling must be followed closely and the clear
water should be poured / filtered off for use. The sediment at
the bottom contains the impurities so care must be taken to
use only the clear water and not allow the sediment to
contaminate the clear water.
Moringa solutions are less effective at treating water with a
low level of turbidity.
Moringa Oleifera does not remove 100% of water pathogens,
that is why this reseach project introduced the construction
and use of Bio-filters to complete the treatment of drinking
water.
Untreated Water (Dirty water
Treated with Moringa Oleifera
BIO-FILTERS
Bio-Filters purify water after the Moringa’s
treatment so that it becomes safe to drink.
They are very useful, both in urban and
rural areas which lack safe piped water.
The research project have developed and
innovative low-cost design using
reinforced concrete.
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MAKING A BIO-FILTER
A strong wood planed at 15mm thickness or plywood is needed
to produce the form work to build the filters. The moulds should
last for many years and any local carpenter can make one.
Each filter contains seven items (see drawing below):
The reinforced concrete outer shell, built using 1 sack of cement
mixed with 2½ sacks of gravel and 2 sacks of sand.
A length of galvanised pipe, 15mm diameter
A diffuser plate full of small holes, made from metal
A 50cm layer of clean, washed, medium-grade sand
A 20cm layer of charcoal from hard wood
A 10cm layer of small gravel (5/15)
A 10cm layer of big gravel (15/25)
The mixed cement is prepared and placed in the mould after
putting the galvanized pipe and handle into position. The mould
is then closed up like a shell. After two days the mould is opened
and the filter removed, any holes can be filled to give a smooth
surface. It is important to keep the reinforced concrete damp for
5 days so that it will not crack because of heat or dryness. The
producing of one filter costs about $15. The filter can be sold for
between $20 to $25, which ensures a profit for the producers but
is still affordable for most households.
• INSTALLING THE FILTER
• This is done once the filter is in permanent place; in the
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cooking or living area.
Place 10cm of big gravel (15/25) followed by a 10cm
layer of small gravel and 20cm layer of charcoal from
hard wood, the charcoal remove the odour of water.
Then fill the filter up with washed sand until it is exactly
below the level of the diffuser plate. Fill the filter now
with water. However, the filter is not yet ready for use. A
layer of what looks like dirt must first be allowed to
develop on the surface of the sand. This “dirty layer” is
the most important part of the filter. It acts as a fine
filter and actually “eats up” some of the diseases causing
microbes in the water. Lower levels in the sand continue
this process, water must be poured into the filter every
day. It takes two to three weeks for the ‘dirty layer’ to
develop fully. During this time water is much improved
but not yet fully safe to drink. People should be
encouraged to wait for three weeks before using the
water directly for drinking.
• USING THE FILTER AT HOME:
• After three weeks, filtered water will be safe to
drink. Tests show that around 99.90% of
microbes and contaminates are removed, water
treated with moringa oleigera is simply poured in
and collected from the spud in clean containers.
After filling the filter, water will need to be
collected in a clean gallon. Normally one litre of
water is filtered every minute, so it will take to
60 minutes for the contents of a 60 liters bucket
to pass through the filter. The filter can be used
as often as needed
• MAINTAINING THE FILTER
• Maintenance of the filter is very simple. There are just a few important points that
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need to be remembered:
If water is not poured into the filter every day, the “dirty layer” can become less
effective.
Children and animals must not be allowed to touch the spout so that it remains clean.
The filter must not be knocked or moved.
Over time, the “dirty layer” may become very thick so that water takes a very long
time to pass through the filter. If this happens there are two (02) options:
Gentle stirring:
Block the spout and fill the filter with water. Stir the water very gently and slowly with
a clean hand. Don’t swirl too fast or the sand layers will be disturbed. Scoop the
muddy water out with a cup, taking care not to touch the sand. You can repeat this a
few times until the water is no longer very dirty during swirling, unblock the spout
and allow the water to pass through the filter as normal, it will be safe to drink
almost immediately.
Thorough cleaning:
Carefully remove 2 – 5cm layer of sand, wash it and replace it, unless gentle stirring
fails to restore a good flow rate, this method is not really recommended because it
disturbs the ‘dirty layer’ it is therefore really important to wait three weeks before
using the water again to ensure it is safe to drink. During the three weeks of waiting
needed after thorough cleaning, other low-cost methods of making water safe for
drinking can be used, such as boiling or using water from a neighbour’s filter.
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RESEARCH PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS
Among the main indicators of success were:
Planting of 17,500,000 trees of Acacia sp, parking sonia, prosopis
Planting of 65,600,000 trees of leucalna leucocephala
Planting of 36,000,000 trees of Calhandra Calothyrsus
Planting of 98,000,000 trees of Moringa Oleifera
Planting 80,000,000 trees of Neem
An improvement in water quality
An improvement in management, protection, conservation and use of water sources.
An introducing of moringa oleifera and Biofilter for water treatment
An improvement of solid-waste and waste water management.
A lower incidence of gastrointestinal diseases in children and adults, when properly used, moringa
oleifera and the filter help to control most water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera and
typhoid.
So far, 212.000 households in Garoua have bought, and are using the filters after training.
212.000 filters were sold over four years, providing health benefits while generating income; the
business of producing filters proved very successful and the technicians have set up business in
new areas to meet fast increasing demand.
156 ecological sanitation toilets have been constructed.
18 Water Committees are registered, women represent about 50% of water committees’
members and are presiding over 10 of them.
18 water committees are functioning democratically and organize election each year.
Improved community health, measurement by a fall in community health centre activities and a
reduction in health expenses of approximately 60 per cent.
A creation of water committee charged with the sustainability of the project.
Atmospheric levels of carbon have been brought down through photosynthesis, a process
whereby plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
TYPHOID
100
80
60
40
20
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
Decrease of disease (Typhoid) in the Communities
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
Decrease of disease (Diarrhoea and Cholera) in the Communities
Data collected from medical district hospital in the 18 quarters of
research project area
(Garoua): 80% children, 20% adults.
Tree planted around the water sources to ameliorate the consequence of
Unregulated development of human settlement and Agricultural activities.
THANK YOU