Transcript Selling an Idea or a Product - Australian Defence Force

Research Methods
Research Topic Selection and Literature
Dr Frantz Clermont (Daryl Essam)
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 6268 8167
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Research Methods

Research Topic Selection:
Issues, Approaches & Examples
2

The Research Process
A
generic prescription
 A nonlinear & an interactive search
 Example of Initial Steps

Research Topic/Question Search
 An iterative process


Originality-related issues & examples
Creative & Critical Thinking Skills
3
The Research Process: A generic prescription
Generic Steps:
1) Choose a Topic
 Idea-Generating
Phase
2) Research Question  Narrowing-Down
Phase
3) Design the Study
4) Collect Data
5) Analyse Data
6) Interpret Data
7) Inform Others
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Research Topic & Research Question (Pass-1):
example
Consider:
Hastings P. K. & Hodge, D. R. (1986), “Religious & moral attitude
trends among college students, 1948-1984”, Social Forces, vol 65:
370-377.
_____________________________________________________________
 Topic: Moral attitudes of college students; periods of conservatism or
liberalism
 Research Question (Pass-1):
 Idea: students  cultural change?
 Evidence: How have student attitudes changed from 1948 to
1984?



Fact: Student attitudes have been found to change from 1948 to
1984?
Question: Students are pacesetters of cultural change!
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Research Question(Pass-2): example

Narrowing Down:
 Literature Perspectives (Media Reports & Past Studies)
 1980s student attitudes = return to 1950s conservatism
 FURTHER QUESTION THUS RAISED BY LITERATURE:
Were religious & moral beliefs also shifted?
 Studies on College Students from the 1920s through the 1970s
 Shifts observed in strength of student religious beliefs
 Parallelled periods of conservatism & liberalism on socio-political
issues
 HYPOTHESIS: Religious & moral beliefs would become more
conservative in the 1980s than in the 1970s!
 DESIGN APPROACH:
 1948: Hastings’ questionnaire submitted to 205 students at
Williams College
 1967,1974,1979,1984: Same Questionnaire from 1948
distributed at same college
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Research Process & Communication Style




Research Topic & Problem  Introduction
Literature Review
 Research Context
Design, Instrumentation
 Materials &
Methods
Data Analyses
 Results & Discussion
 Abstract
 Title
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What Next?: That is all very well, but how do I go about
selecting my own research topic which is to yield original work?
Questions:
What should I do?
 What skills do I need to
develop?

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Topic/Question Search: An Iterative
Process
Activity:




Make a list of topics of interest/relevance/importance
Consider one or two topics about which you know something
Carry out exploratory/skeletal review of literature relevant to
broad area
Consult with supervisor & others => perspectives on
worthiness & feasibility
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Topic/Question Search:
Literature Review-1
(exploratory)

Aims:
 to assess importance/worthiness of topic(s) of interest
 to clarify and justify a specific topic

Involves:
 Reading seminal papers, recent review/tutorial papers
 Learning about state-of-the-art from papers’ introductions
 Learning of “ways forward” from papers’ conclusions
 Paying attention to titles, keywords and recurrent
citations
 Annotating a preliminary bibliography
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Research Topic/Question Search: In a
nutshell!





Initial seed(s):
 Supervisor and/or Others
 Personal Background, Experiences,
Intuition
Literature Review-1: exploratory/skeletal
Consultation with Supervisor and Others
An Iterative Process
An Incessant Search for Originality!
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What Next?: That is still all very well, but what is meant by
Originality and how will I recognise it?
Consider the following analogy:
Research Course
Research Student (U)


 An Expedition
 The Explorer (E)
E starts with a general idea of an area (e.g., of
land) to explore
U starts with a general area of interest
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Originality: Tools, Techniques & Procedures


E gathers information to firm up why a particular area is to be
explored;
U studies the literature, talks to experts and sits on relevant
seminars.
E uses collected information to organise procedures, tools,
equipment & personnel;
 U must include decisions about procedures, tools & techniques,
and possibly also people to be involved.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Selection, development and testing of
procedures, tools & techniques could be the basis of originality!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Originality: Exploring the unknown
E embarks on a preplanned & previously unexplored route!
 U embarks on a major investigation of “something”, which
has not before been investigated!
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------A research problem defined in an unknown or unexplored
area
almost readily bears the stamp of originality!
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Originality: Use of Data
E brings back potentially useful or ground-breaking data,
which were not processed on the expedition;
 U may be in the same situation and could proceed to use
fresh (or even) old data in order to gain new insights into new
or existing theories or practices.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Use of Data for the purpose of gaining new or further
insights
(theoretical/practical) could also be the basis of originality!
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Originality: Outcomes
E may bring back range of data from the expected to the unexpected;
 U may develop outcomes which may or may not relate closely to the
research problem as it was first formulated.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Research outcomes do not need to be new in absolute terms, but only
need to be new to a situation!

Unexpected outcomes can cause a reformulation of the initial
research problem.
However, this is likely to add considerable strength to the
argumentation leading to the amended problem, thereby injecting
originality to such outcomes!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Research Methods:
Research Problem Formulation: Issues, Approaches & Examples
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


Research Topic Formulation: A Refresh
Research Frameworks  Research Question  Research
Study
 Philosophies
 Typology
 Strategies
The Research Question:
 Some Guidelines & A Step-by-Step Approach
 “Real” Examples to Illustrate Approach
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Refresh on Research Topic Formulation: In a
nutshell!

An Iterative Process + a Porous Mind!

Initial seed(s):



Consultation with Supervisor(s) and Others
Personal Background, Experiences, Intuition
Literature Review-1:


Skeletal
Exploratory
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Research Topic Formulation: Literature
Review-1

Aims:



to assess importance/worthiness of topic(s) of interest
to clarify and justify a specific topic
Involves:





Reading seminal papers, recent review/tutorial papers
Learning about state-of-the-art from papers’ introductions
Learning of “ways forward” from papers’ conclusions
Paying attention to titles, keywords and recurrent
citations
Annotating a preliminary bibliography
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Undertaking Research Study  A New Way of
Thinking!
“Paradigm”
Kuhn, T.S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of
Chicago Press
DEFINITIONS
 A basic orientation to theory & research
 A whole system of thinking
 Basic assumptions
 Important Questions to be resolved
 Collection of Research Techniques
 Examples of what good research looks like
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Undertaking Research Study  A New Way of
Thinking!

Research Philosophies
 Positivism
 Interpretivism

Research Orientations
 Basic ( “pure”)
 Applied

Research Typology  Purpose-related
 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Explanatory
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Positivism (scientific method)

Origins & Underlying Philosophy

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Aims

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Traditional approach from the “hard” sciences
Dominates research and publications (CS & IS)
Assumes existence of a priori, fixed relationships within
phenomena that are typically investigated with
structured instruments.
To test theory
To increase predictive understanding
Identifiable by

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

Testing of hypotheses
Quantifiable measure of variables
Population inferences from samples
Purely descriptive studies (e.g., factual accounts, case
studies)
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The Positivist



Starts with or Seeks Cause-Effect (CE) Relationships
Tests CE’s Underlying Ideas
measurements/observations
Remains Detached, Neutral & Objective
 relies on observed facts
 examines new/old evidence
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The Interpretivist (I) vs The
Positivist (P)

P would
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precisely measure quantitative details about 1000 individuals
use statistical data analyses
rely on such analyses to interpret behaviour(s) & derive “laws”
or “models”
I would



live for some time with 12 individuals
use careful methods to collect large quantities of qualitative
details
rely on such data to acquire understanding of human
behaviour(s)
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Interpretivism

Origins & Underlying Philosophy

From (some of) the social sciences (e.g., anthropology):

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Assumes that people create and associate their own
subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact
w/ the world around them.
Aims

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
Ethnographic methods - field research
To elucidate and to expose human meaning in social life
To use relativistic, shared understanding of phenomena
Identifiable by

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Non-deterministic perspective
No a priori researcher’s understanding
Cultural or contextual effects on understanding
Data collected in natural setting
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Research Orientations

Basic

Advances fundamental knowledge
Contributes largely to theory formation

Refuting  Supporting
Descriptive, Explanatory, Exploratory

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
Example

Pure maths research (100 yrs ago)  Today’s computers!
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Research Orientations

Applied

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

Advances application of knowledge
Contributes largely to particular/specific
problems/applications
 Theory is less central
 Practical use is more central
Frequently Descriptive
Example


Social Impact of the AIDS virus
Policy Issues on Internet Gambling
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Research Types: Exploratory

Goals
 To uncover basic facts, people and issues involved
 To develop a good mental picture of area of investigation
 To generate ideas and develop tentative theories &
propositions
 To formulate questions for more systematic work

Example
 Unseen Symptoms (1980s)  AIDS virus
 Medical research
 Social research
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Research Types: Descriptive



Goals
 To describe a process, a mechanism, a relationship
 To create a set of categories or types
 To provide information pointing toward new explanations
 To provide information that contradicts existing theory
Tools
 Surveys/Questionnaires
 Field data
 Historical-comparative data
Outcome Example
 10% of parents are found to abuse children in society X!
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Research Types: Explanatory

Goals
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To determine accuracy of principle or of theory
To evaluate competing explanations
To link issues under a common general statement
To build or expand upon existing theory
To apply existing theory to a new application
To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation
To advance knowledge about underlying process
Outcome Example

Why are 10% of parents found to abuse children in society
X?
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Basic Research Strategies: Ways to Acquire
Knowledge
1) Tenacity: “it has always been that way”
2) Authority: “the boss says it is true”
3) Intuition: “it feels true”
4) Rationalism: “it makes sense logically”
5) Empiricism: “I observed it to be true”

Research Process : [(4) + (5)] + (3)
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Formulating the Research
Question/Problem:
Some Guidelines

Some Crucial, Initial Determinants



Your interest in the subject area
Manageability of research study within your constraints
Suggested Steps (assuming you already have a specific
topic)



Raise research questions you would like to answer
Formulate objectives (main & sub-) for your study
Assess objectives (feasibility, resources & technical
expertise)

Double check
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On Formulating Main Objective & Sub-
Objectives
re: Research Question/Problem

{Objective+Sub-Objectives} = {Goals to be Attained}

Main Objective = The Main Goal


Thrust of Study
Main Connections/Associations to be Discovered/Established


Sub-Objectives = Specific Goals



Ex.: To find out the effects of alcoholism on the family
Ex.-1: To find out the effects of alcoholism on the financial institution of the
family
Ex.-2: To determine the ways in which alcoholism affects different aspects
of children’s lives
Wording  Research Orientation/Type



Clarity
Completeness
Specificity
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Research Methods: The Literature
Review
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Lecture Outline & Objectives
Literature Review:
 Motivations & Benefits
 What?  Characteristics & Goals
 How?
 Procedures
 Why?
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Why?  (1) Bring Clarity & Focus

The daunting paradox:
–
–

Effective literature search research problem
Literature review shape research problem
Expected (inevitable?) Benefits:
–
–
Better (& deeper) understanding of subject/problem area
Conceptualisation of a viable, research problem
 Clarity
 Conciseness
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Why?  (2) Improve Your
Methodology

Contra others’ procedures and methods
– Similarity
– Effectiveness
– Limitations

Expected Benefits
– Procedures/methods appropriate to research
problem
– Defensible choices
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Why?  (3) Broaden Your Knowledge
Base

Ensemble of perspectives
– Currency of similar and/or related problems
– Types of theories & their explanatory strengths
– Trends in methodologies & their effectiveness
– Argumentations & interpretations
– {… Gaps …}!
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Why?  Purpose (in a nutshell)

Generic requirements:





Learn from others and formulate new ideas
Show prior research direction
Integrate and summarise what is known
Demonstrate strong familiarity with a body of knowledge
Research degree requirements


Evidence of: {your problem area}  {high level of expertise}
Evidence of: {your study}  {existing body of knowledge}
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Why?  Benefits (in a nutshell)

Expert knowledge of





Sound knowledge of

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The topic finally selected and other related topics
The theories relevant to a range of topics
Range of viable and/or plausible hypotheses
Research designs & methodologies applicable to topic area
Leading Perspectives
Leading Scholars
A way of thinking!  Second nature!
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What?  Characteristics of Literature
Review

Three (3) major goals



Relevant body of knowledge  Framework
Prior research paths  Context
Integration  Threads  Research problem!

Reviewing Styles/Types

Literature = {???}
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What?  Goal-1: Familiarity w/ Body of
knowledge




Common to all reviews
Provides necessary foundation/framework
Expertise Credibility!
Scholarship A way of thinking!
Not the only Goal:


Generally
Definitely  Thesis Context
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What?  Goal-2: Prior Research Paths
Essential Goal!

Unfold links within relevant body of
knowledge


Research (sub-) objectives
A gradual build up to research question



Extension of a line of thought
Conflicting views
Unanswered question(s)
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What?  Goal-3: Integrate and
Summarise
Essential Goal!

What is (or appears to be) known



Contrasts amongst Theories/Methodologies
Unifying perspectives on Theories/Methodologies
What is (or appears to be) unknown



Recall range of plausible research hypotheses/questions
Recall YOUR research question  its relevance!
Recall YOUR research question  its significance!
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What?  Reviewing Styles/Types: A broad
classification




Contextual ……...
Theoretical ……..
Methodological ..
Integrative ………
 Goal-2
 Goal-2
 Goal-2
 Goal-3
Historical ……….  Goal-2, Goal-3
 Meta-analysis ….  Combining results of
previous papers

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What?  Literature = {???}

Primary Sources


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
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
Secondary Sources

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Academic Journals (serials)
Electronic Journals
Conference Proceedings
Dissertations and Theses
Abstract and Keyword Services
Book Chapters
Monographs
Other Sources


Government Publications
Industry Reports
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How?: Primary Sources
Primary sources publish the details of
specific research projects
 Journal articles

–
–

Thousands of journals covering every topic
imaginable
Abstract services makes it easy to find relevant
journal articles
Dissertations
–
Available through interlibrary loan or Web
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How?: Secondary Sources
Secondary sources provide reviews of
broad areas of research
 Review articles in journals or books

–
–

Provide integrative reviews of a research
area
Some journals specialize in these kinds of
integrative reviews
Books and edited books
–
Provide extensive reviews without the
typical space constraints of journal reviews 49
How?: Finding the Relevant
Research
Searching randomly for the information
you want is a hopeless task
 Abstract and keyword search services
allow you to track down information by
author, title, and most importantly, topic
 Citation indexes allow you to find
sources by identifying papers that
reference a particularly relevant paper

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How?: Abstracting Services

Abstracting services provide information
on a wide range of sources (journal
articles, books and chapters in books,
magazine articles, etc.) in a standard
format that includes an abstract of each
source
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How?: Subject and Keyword
Services

Virtually identical to abstract services
except they do not include the abstract
–
Topic searches are conducted by title, keyword, or
subject searches
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How?: Citation Indexes
Lists which articles, books, or chapters
reference a specific paper
 Valuable for finding studies that build on
previous research, because these
studies will usually reference the
previous work

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How?: Search Strategies

Many ways to find the information that
you are after
–
–
–
–
Search by topic
Search by author using authors who you
know specialize in the area
Check out the references in relevant
articles
Use citation indexes to find articles that cite
classic articles in a field
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How?: Search by Topic
The most common search strategy
 Abstract and keyword indexes are
structured for topic searches

–
–

Most are now computerized
Easy to do sophisticated searches in
computerized databases using Boolean
operators (OR & AND)
Identify all the work of authors you find
who have done a lot of work in the field
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How?: Searching Backwards
Relevant research will likely reference
other relevant research
 Identify some recent relevant studies
and then look through their reference
sections
 Not a substitute for a thorough topic
search, but is a good supplementary
strategy

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How?: Searching Forward
In most areas, there will be one or more
articles that are SO critical that they will
be referenced by every related study
 Citation indexes can be used to find the
studies that reference these classic
studies
 Again, not a substitute for a thorough
topic search, but a good supplementary
strategy

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How?: Literature Reading (A suggested
procedure)






Step-1: Skim article/chapter:
 title, abstract, (sub-) headings & conclusion
Step-2: Reflect for a moment 
Formulate questions YOU expect to be
answered
Step-3: Read article/chapter quickly
Step-4: Read article/chapter while taking notes &
highlighting items
Step-5: Reflect on article/chapter 
Formulate questions Your potential
research
Step-6: Integrate all YOUR thoughts
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Literature Review In Sum

It involves a paradox in the first instance

A continuous process  A way of thinking!
 searching for existing literature
 reviewing the selected literature
 using it to develop the antecedents to your
problem
 using it to develop the framework for your
investigations
 all materials presented must have a purpose
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