Transcript CHAPTER 6: Biological and Psychological Theories

Chapter 12: Gang Delinquency
►
A. Introduction
►
Peers and Group Delinquency
►
Gangs and Gang Delinquency



►
-Problems in Defining Gangs
-Joining Gangs and Getting Out of Gangs
-Characteristics of Gangs
The Contemporary Gang Problem




-The Spread of Gangs
-Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gangs
-Gang Violence
-Drugs and Drug Dealing by Gangs (Overstated?)
►
Female Gang Delinquency
►
Gang Suppression, Intervention, and Prevention Strategies


-Suppression
-Intervention and Prevention
►
B. Peers and Group Delinquency
►
1. Are gangs the result of Group Dynamics?
►
a. Paul Lerman published a study in 1967 regarding low-income neighborhoods in New York
City which found that about 10% of boys who engaged in delinquent behavior belonged to a
gang or a 'named group‘
►

i. Lerman's research found that the early association with delinquent peers was a significant predicator of
later gang entry

ii. James F. Short, Jr. argued against Lermans findings, contending that many gang members 'pair off'
and engage in delinquency as a group, but usually only hang out in pairs or trios
b. The group nature of delinquency has also been examined, although early studies in the 20th
century overestimated the amount of delinquency perpetrated by such groups

►
i. The inconsistencies in this data were due to law enforcement officials' tendency to pursue 'youths in
packs‘
c. Michael Hindelang helped to counter this bias by relying solely on self-report surveys/data
and made several noteworthy findings

i. Some delinquent behavior seems to be more likely to be committed with associates (using marijuana
and getting drunk) while other forms of deviant behavior are often engaged in alone (carrying a
weapon)
►
►
►
d. Clear differences in delinquency rates between gang and non-gang members have been
reported when gang membership is a known factor in group offending

i. Finn-Aage Esbensen and other researchers have found that prevalence rates and individual rates of
delinquency are greater for both males and females who participate in gangs, than those who do not
participate in gangs

ii. Sara Battin and Terence Thornberry corroborate this by stating that participation in most forms of
delinquency increase upon a juvenile's entry into a gang
e. The Rochester Youth Development Study examined the portion of delinquency in the
community that could be attributed to gang involvement and non-gang involvement

i. In the aforementioned study, gang members accounted for 86% of the serious delinquent acts, 69% of
the violent delinquent acts, and 70% of drug sales

ii. In summary, involvement in gangs dramatically increases a juvenile's involvement in delinquency,
especially serious delinquency (homicide, extortion, etc.)
f. Tom Winfree and his associates are quick to point out that most juveniles who join gangs may
already have a predisposition toward violence and that this may explain why members seem to
engage in more delinquency (chicken or the egg scenario)

i. Do group dynamics influence a juvenile in a gang to engage in more delinquency than a non-gang
youth?
►
C. Gangs and Gang Delinquency
►
1. Problems in Defining Gangs
►
a. Stemming back to the 20th century, the term gang was quite pejorative and was frequently
associated with groups in socially disorganized and deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods

►
i. Frederick Thrasher, in his 1927 study of more than 1,300 delinquent gangs in Chicago, found that while
no two gangs are alike, they possess a number of qualities that set them apart from other social groups
b. According to Thrasher, gangs can be classified (note that he leaves criminality out of his
classification) by the following types of behavior:

i. Meeting face to face

ii. Milling

iii. Movement through space as a unit

iv. Conflict

v. Planning

►
c. In the 1950's, the image of the gang transformed into one in which large urban groups of
males engaged in violent conflict (as seen in the West Side Story)

►
►
vi. Development of tradition (unreflective internal structure, esprit de corps, solidarity, morale, group
awareness, attachment to a specific territory)
i. According to Joan Moore, the gang is "a friendship group of adolescents who share common interests,
with a more or less clearly defined territory, in which most of the members live. They are committed to
defending one another, the territory, and the gang name in the status-setting fights that occur in school
and on streets“
d. By the 1980's there began to be a public outcry over gangs and the organization and
structure of gangs began to be examined in more detail

i. Walter Miller defines a youth gang as "a self-forming association of peers, bound together by mutual
interests, with identifiable leadership, well-developed lines of authority, and other organizational
features, who act in concert to achieve a specific purpose or purposes which generally include the
conduct of illegal activity and control over a particular territory, facility, or type of enterprise" (as seen in
the movie "colors")

ii. However, this definition has been scrutinized by criminologists and law enforcement officials alike for
being too restrictive
e. According to the Street Terrorism and Prevention Act (STEP) (section 186.22) of the
California Penal Code, a street criminal gang is:
►

i. "any ongoing organization, association, or group of three or more persons, whether formal or informal,
having as one of its primary activities the commission of one or more of the criminal acts enumerated in
paragraphs (1) to (8), inclusive, of subdivision (3), which has a common name or common identifying
sign or symbol, whose members individually or collectively engage in or have engaged in a pattern of
criminal gang activity“

ii. Note that this code allows law enforcement to arrest/apply pressure to youths for being involved,
and/or having knowledge of criminal activities (criminal conspiracy)

iii. A legally binding definition of gangs in most states in the exception, rather than the rule, as most
states do not have legislatively determined definitions of juvenile gangs
f. In 1998, the National Youth Gang Survey asked law enforcement agencies across the country
to rank six defining characteristics of gangs in order of definitional importance

i. 50% of law enforcement agencies participating ranked "Commits crimes together" as the most
important factor in defining gangs (19% has a gang, 10% Hangs out together, 9% Claims a turf, 8%
Colors-symbols-other defining insignia, 7% has a leader or several leaders)

ii. More than half of all law enforcement agencies also responded that they use a member-based
definition, or a method of defining a crime as gang-related when a gang member or members are
either the perpetrators or the victims, regardless of the motive

iii. About two-thirds used a motive-based definition, or a method of defining a crime as gang-related
when committed by a gang member or members in which the underlying reason is to further the interest
and activities of the gang
►
►
g. According to the LAPD, (note that California purportedly has the largest gang problem in the
country), there are a number of criteria that are used to determine a member-based definition:

i. When incidents involve participants who are identified as gang members/associates

ii. When a reliable informant identifies the incident as gang related

iii. When a criminal act is reported, and the suspect or victim is on file as an active gang or associate
gang member

iv. When the investigation reveals that the incident involves a gang member, even if they are not
necessarily trying to further the interests or activities of their gang (or if their gang affiliation is not
known by the victim or the perpetrator)
h. In contrast to this, the Chicago P.D. (note that Illinois purportedly has the second-largest
gang problem in the country, directly behind California), uses a motive-based definition (which
some argue is too restrictive)

i. A homicide is gang-related "only if it occurs in the course of an explicitly defined collective encounter
between two or more gangs (a gang fight, for example)

ii. For the C.P.D. there must be a gang-related motive for an act to be defined as 'gang-related'
►
2. Joining Gangs and Getting Out of Gangs
►
a. Most youths who join gangs are influenced to do so by external forces, outside of the realm
of family control
►
b. According to Martin Jankowski, there are 6 main reasons why a juvenile may be attracted to
a gang:
►

i. Material incentives (money)

ii. Recreation (meet girls, drink, hang out)

iii. Refuge or camouflage (the gang offers anonymity)

iv. Physical protection (personal protection from predatory elements: rival gangs, extortionists)

v. A time to resist (a show of defiance to their parents or other figures of authority)

vi. Commitment to community (allows a juvenile to demonstrate local patriotism and a dedication to its
defense)
c. Though there are myths that you are required to be in a gang for life, this is not necessarily
true

i. Randall Shelden, Sharon Tracy, and William Brown argue that most youths who leave gangs simply do
so without being required to give a reason
►
3. Characteristics of Gangs (Debunking the myths)
►
a. The organizational structure of gangs has evolved over time, and is varied in many cities

i. One example of gang structure is the Chicago Vice Lords, whom formed an administrative "board" of
sorts to direct the decisions and the day to day operations of the gang

ii. James F. Short, Jr. notes that this is highly atypical of most gangs, and argues that many gangs fall
somewhere in the middle between crowds and mobs on one hand, and mobs and ordinary organizations
on the other

iii. In other words, the hierarchical structure of gangs is very rudimentary at best, with most operating at
a highly de-centralized level

iv. When Gene Muehlbauer and Laura Dodder analyzed a suburban gang known as the "losers" they
noted that it operated at a cellular level, with about 10 or 12 members consisting of the nucleus and
other members defined in their relation to the core

v. Other gangs become so large that they break off into sub-groups called "cliques“

vi. In an analysis of Latino gangs in California, Robert Jackson and Wesley McBride noted that these
cliques are typically based on age and often on specialty (for example, gunmen were found to be in
cliques with other gunmen)

►
►
vii. Klikas (as defined by Joan Moore) are age cohorts within Latino gangs that form about every two
years and are characterized by salient lifelong membership and reference groups for some, but not all,
members of the gang
b. While most gangs have clearly defined leaders, the establishment of such leaders varies from
gang to gang

i. In the mafia-style model of gang leadership, the top authority position is analogous to a general in the
military (it also relies on a chain of command structure with a series of ranks and echelons)

ii. In the charismatic style of gang leadership, a leader rules by the force of his or her personality and is
typically older and stronger than the other members of the gang (rules by a combination of charisma
and intimidation)

iii. According to Barry Krisberg, the defining characteristic of nearly every gang leader is their superior
verbal ability and their ability to 'get stuff done‘
c. In Irving Spergels research, turf is defined as having two main components, identification
and control

i. While at one time, there were clearly defined boundaries of turf, the mobility and the renovation of
many urban communities has blurred such lines

ii. Also, graffiti is often used to mark turf, though many gangs attempt to keep a low profile in certain
instances, mainly due to police vigilance in recent years
►
d. Though gangs are cohesive and typically share a sense of solidarity with one another,
many criminologists say that this does not seem to be the case in recent years

i. Malcolm Klein says that the gang members he observed were "dissatisfied, deprived, and
making the best of an essentially unhappy situation“

ii. James F. Short, Jr. and Fred Strodtbeck say that most gang members fail at school, their
personal lives and that these failings make these juveniles insecure about their status, thus
driving them toward the thug life
►
e. The purpose of gangs is not necessarily to commit criminal offenses, and most
researchers have found that most gang members spend their time on pursuits other
than crime
►
D. The Contemporary Gang Problem
►
1. The spread of gangs
►
a. Walter Miller identified seven major reasons that account for the dramatic spread
of gangs over the past three decades:

i. Drugs – The expansion of illegal drug markets increased the solidarity of existing gangs and
offered the incentives for the creations of new gangs

ii. Immigration – An influx of immigration over the past 25 years has brought in many groups
whose children have formed gangs
►
iii. Gang Names and Alliances – In the 1980's the pattern of adopting a common name and
claiming a federated relationship to a major gang became increasingly popular (splinter
federations from the Blood, Crips, Latin Kings, and Gangster Disciples are popular)
►
iv. Migration – some experts believe that when gangs exhaust a particular drug market, they
move to another untapped community in an effort to gain more profits (i.e. urban to suburban)
►
v. Government Policies – During the 1960's, some gangs were allocated federal funds as part of
the 'war on poverty' which were provided to these groups to initiate social reform programs
►
vi. Female-headed households – The absence of stable adult male role models created identity
problems for male adolescents who then turned to gangs to fill a gap in their lives
►
vii. Gang Subculture and the Media – Gangs are 'hot market items' and the media has been
accused of portraying gangs in a flattering light (or as the underdogs of society)
►
b. Researchers such as Cheryl Maxon believes that the spread of gangs can be primarily
attributed to the migration from gang members families to the suburbs and the development of
loosely associated cliques that stem from this movement
►
2. Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gangs
►
a. The two most notorious (and primarily black gangs) are the bloods and the crips
►

i. These gangs are typically composed of many sets, (consisting of about 20 to 30 members each though
some sets have around 100 or more members)

ii. Black gangs have little, in any, formal structure and George Hackett states that "Leadership is usually
collective, and internal organization is rudimentary… Most sets are as casually organized as a pickup
basketball game“

iii. Most rivalry with other gangs is a result over turf, wrong style of dress, etc.
b. Latino gangs are usually composed of youths whose ethnic backgrounds include Mexican,
Mexican American, Cuban, and Puerto Rican, etc.

i. As was previously mentioned, most Latino gangs are organized around Klikas, separated in age by two
or three years

ii. In Latino gangs, allegiance to others and the defense of the barrio (or hood) is extremely important
and Latino gangs have shown a remarkable longevity over the years, with generations of members
arising from the same lineage
►
►

iii. Membership in a Latino gang is primarily achieved through a 'beat in' initiation to see if a new
member is able to defend himself

iv.. According to the Regoli/Hewitt the automobile is important to Latino gangs with the main symbol of
wealth and status being the low-rider
c. Asian gangs are a relatively new development in the United States

i. According to Ko-lin Chin, the first Asian youth gangs started appearing in the United States around the
1950, after an influx of Chinese immigration

ii. Unlike most other gangs, Asian gangs are primarily concerned with the acquisition of money rather
than fighting with other gangs over turf

iii. In research compiled by James Vigil and Steve Yun, Indo-Chinese gangs are among the most
numerous among Asian gangs today

iv. According to Geoffrey Hunt, Karen Joe, and Dan Waldorf, Asian gangs do not usually have a
hierarchical structure, or a clearly defined leadership

v. Unlike Latino or black gangs, Asian gangs are more likely to initiate members through a process of
evaluation or 'kicking back' on a regular basis in an effort to determine whether the recruit should be
accepted or not
3. Gang Violence and Other Activities
►
►
a. Today's gangs are exceptionally violent when compared to the gangs of earlier decades
(especially on school grounds)

i. Gang operations have been identified at all three levels of schools, including elementary, junior high
school, and high school

ii. However, most gang violence still occurs off of school grounds
b. Walter Miller attributes the growth of gang violence after the 1970's to firearms (specifically
the handgun)

►
i. Youth gang homicides have increased since the 1970's
c. Are juvenile gangs extensively involved in drug dealing?

i. C. Ronald Huff reports that gang members appear to be extensively involved in drug sales, especially
cocaine and marijuana (in a study he conducted in Colorado, Ohio and Florida)

ii. The National Youth Gang Center reports that although gangs are involved in drug dealing, respondents
indicated that gangs did not control or manage most of the drug distribution

iii. Malcolm Klein argues that street gangs and drug gangs are not the same, because most street gangs
are simply too disorganized to engage in a successful drug trafficking operation

iv. Studies conducted by James Inciardi and his colleagues seem to corroborate Klein's argument
►
E. Female Gang Delinquency
►
1. A Serious Problem?
►
a. Recent studies suggest that girls may comprise anywhere from 4 to 38 percent of all gang
members

i. Female gang members are much more likely to be involved in delinquency, especially serious
delinquency, than are non-gang females

ii. Generally speaking, female gang members engage in less delinquency than their male gang
counterparts

iii. Also, female gang members are less likely to be the victims of gang violence than are male gang
members (chivalry?)
►
b. Initiation also varies among gangs who accept females into their ranks

►
►
i. Some girls are tattooed, some are blessed and others are 'sexed in' (required to have intercourse with
multiple gang members)
c. Why do females join gangs?

i. Many girls seem to look to the gang as an escape from family problems

ii. Joan Moore and John Hagedorn report that the parents of gang girls were more likely than boys to
come from families that were abusive (in their Los Angeles study)

iii. Jody Miller reported that 71% of the gang girls in her study reported serious family problems, such as
violence, drug addiction, and drug or alcohol abuse, compared to only 26% of non-gang girls
d. Geoffrey Hunt postulates that females who join gangs do so as an extension of their families
in an effort to expand their social networks (after interviewing 47 different Latino females who
represented 23 different gangs)
►
F. Gang Suppression, Intervention, and Prevention Strategies
►
1. The strategy of Suppression (is it effective?)
►
a. The use of existing laws allows authorities to charge gang youths with basic criminal offensecrimes against persons, property, and public order-as well as to use conspiracy laws to target
gang members who may have been physically present during the commission of a crime

i. In some states, gang-related crimes carry maximum sentences (is this really a deterrent?)
►
►
b. According to a Bureau of Justice Assistance report on urban street gang enforcement, the
key elements in gang suppression involve understanding the problem, gathering intelligence
into a comprehensive database, and developing strategies aimed at taking down the leaders of
said gangs

i. A common strategy for law enforcement officials is a technique called a 'neighborhood sweep' in which
known gang members are rounded up and questioned (do you think this is harassment, or an effective
deterrent?)

ii. Another strategy is surveillance of known gang 'hotspots‘

iii. The creation of specialized prosecutor programs that target gang activity have been established
throughout the country, most notably in Los Angeles with its Operation Hardcore (est. 1979)
c. According to Malcolm Klein, most gang prosecution programs include:

i. Transfers to adult court for juvenile gang members

ii. Forfeiture of cars used in drive-by shootings

iii. Enhanced penalties for crimes committed near schools

iv. Enhanced penalties for graffiti writing

v. Prosecution for gang recruitment

vi. Prosecution for criminal conspiracy under the Federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organization
Act (RICO) and similar state laws in cases of drug sales and other applicable crimes
►
2. Intervention and Prevention Strategies
►
a. Many gang experts are quick to warn that gangs should not be viewed in an us versus them
mindset (don't view things in terms of moral absolutism)
►

i. John Hagedorn argues that the growth of gangs in the Midwest can be attributed, in part, to the
emerging black underclass and inadequate social programs

ii. Growing poverty, and the flight from the cities by both whites and upwardly mobile blacks, has left
behind a huge underclass in several inner cities

iii. William Julius Wilson argues that this poverty, among other factors, leads to social disorganization
b. Experts advocate increased funding and support for social programs targeted toward 'at-risk'
youth in the community in order to address the reasons why gangs form in the first place.
These programs should include broad based strategies such as:

i. Youth outreach programs

ii. Establishment of community centers
►

iii. Employment and training assistance

iv. School dropout services (G.E.D. attainment programs, etc.)

v. Multicultural training for teachers and other professionals

vi. Family intervention and training

vii. Substance abuse counseling

viii. Conflict mediation programs

ix. Recreational activities
c. Non-governmental organizations such as the Boys & Girls Club of America (BGCA) have
developed a program to reach at risk youths

►
i. Their gang prevention through a targeted outreach program combines structured activities with
confidence building measures in an effort to deter youth from seeking out gang membership
d. 'Designing out' gang violence has also been attempted by police departments around the
country
►
i. In Los Angeles, Operation Cul de Sac (OCDS) was an experiment designed to decrease driveby shootings in certain areas by closing down certain accessible roads where drive-by shootings
were the most frequent (by using free-way dividers)
►
ii. The number of homicides in the OCDS area fell significantly over the two years in which this
program was run for
►
iii. However, the number of homicides increased after the operation ceased
►
iv. This is a shining example of situational crime prevention
►
-end of chapter 12 notes