Transcript Overviewof the research proces in qualitative and

Key Concepts and Terms in
Quantitative Research
Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
An-Najah National University
Faculty of Nursing
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
1
Quantitative Research

Typically move in an orderly and systematic fashion
from the definition of a problem and the selection
of concepts on which to focus , through the design
of the study and collection of information, to the
solution of the problem
2015-07-18
2
Quantitative Research


Quantitative research use mechamisms designed to
control the study
Control involves imposing (dra fördel av) condition
on the research situation so that biasis are
minimized and precision and validity are maximized
2015-07-18
3
Quantitative Research



Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is
rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or
indirectly through the senses
Empirical evidence consists of observations, gathered
through sight, hearing, taste, touch or smell
Observations of the presence or abscence of skin
inflammation, the heart rate of a patient or the weight of
a newborn infant are all examples of empirical
observations
2015-07-18
4
Quantitative Research


Using formal instruments to collect needed
information- numeric information that analyzed with
statistical procedure
Generalizability of the research:the degree to which
research findings can be generalized to individuals
other than those who participated in the study
2015-07-18
5
The Faces and Places of Research




Studies with humans involve two sets of people:
Those who do the research and those who provide the
information
In a quantitative study, the people who are being studied are
referred to as subjects or study participants
Subjects who provide information to researchers by
answering questions directly. E.g by filling out a questionnairemay be called respondents
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
6
The Faces and Places of Research


Studies are often undertaken by several
people rather by a single researcher
Collaborative research involving a team of
nurses with both clinical and methodologic
expertise (or involving different members of
a health care team is increasingly common in
addressing problems of clinical relevance
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
7
The Faces and Places of Research



When financial assistance is obtained to pay for
research costs, the organization providing the
money is the funder or sponsor
Reviewers are sometimes called on to critique
various aspects of a study and offer feedback
If these people are at a similar level of experience
as the researchers, they may be called peer
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
reviewers
devision of anaesthesia and
2015-07-18
8
Research Setting



Research can be conducted in a wide variety of
locales, in health care facilities, in people´s homes,
in classrooms
Based on the nature of the research question and
the type of information needed to address it
Multisites studies- offer a larger or more diverse
sample of study participants as public and private
sectors, urban and rural location
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
9
Settings



Settings are the more specific places where data
collection occurs
In some cases the setting and sites, as when the
selected site is a large hospital and information is
collected exclusively within that setting
The nature of setting can influence the way people
behave or feel and how they respond to questions,
the selection of an appropriate setting is important
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
10
Variables




are something that varies
Weight, anxiety level, income and body temperature are all
variables
To quantitative research nearly all aspects of human beings
and their environment are variables
Quantitative research seek to understand how or why things
vary and to learn how differences in one variable are related
to differences in another
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
11
Variables

E.g. Lung cancer research is concerned with the variable of lung cancer

It is variable because not every´body has this disease




Researchers have studied what variables might be linked to lung cancer
and have discovered cigarette smoking is related
Smoking is a variable because not every one smokes
A variable is any quality of a person, group or situation that varies or
takes on different values
Variables are the central building blocks of quantitaive studies, there are
different types of variables
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
2015-07-18
devision of anaesthesia and
12
Continous, Discrete and
Categorial Variables





Sotimes variables take on a wide range of values
A person’s age can take on values from zero to more than
100 and the values are not restricted to whole numbers
Such continous variables have values that can be
represented on a continuum
In theory, a continous variable can assume an infinite
number of values between two points
For example, consider the continous variable
weight:between 1 and
Dr Aidah
2 pounds,
Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
the number of values is
devision of anaesthesia and
2015-07-18
13
limitless:1.oo5,1.7,1.33333
and so on
Discrete Variable



Is one that has a finite number of values between
any two points variables representing discrete
quantities if people were asked how many children
they had, they might answer 0,1,2,3 or more
The value for number of children is discrete
because the such as 1.5 is not a meaningful value
Between the values 1 and 3 the only possible value
is 2
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
14
Categorial variables






The variable gender for example has only two values (male & female)
Other variables take on a small range of values that do not inherently
represent a quantity
Variables that take on only a handful of discrete non quantitative values
are categorial variables
Another example is blood type (A,B,AB,O)
When categorial variables take on only two values they are referred to
as dichotomous variables
Examples of dichotomous variables are pregnant /not pregnant, HIV
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
positive/HIV negative, alive/dead
2015-07-18
devision of anaesthesia and
15
Active Versus Attribute
Variables

Variables are often characteristics of research subjects such as their
age, health beliefs, or weight

Variables such as these are attribute variables. in many research
situations the investigator creates a variable


For example, if a researcher is interested in testing the effectiveness of
patient controlled analgesia as opposed to intramuscular analgesia in
relieving pain after surgery, some patients would be given patientcontrolled analgesia and others would receive intramuscular analgesia
In the context of this study, method of pain management is a variable
because different patients are given different analgesic methods, the
researcher cerates as active variables
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
16
Active Versus Attribute
Variables



An active variable in one study could be an attribute
variable in another
For example a researcher might create an active salt
intake variable by exposing two groups of people to
different amounts of salt in their diets
Another researcher could examine the salt intake
(attributes) of a sample by asking about their
consumption of salt
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
17
Dependent Versus Independent
variables

Does a nursing intervention cause more rapid recovery?

Does smoking cause lung cancer?

The presumed cause is the independent variable

The presumed effect is the dependent variable


Some researchers use the term criterion variable rather than dependent
variable
Others use the term outcome variable-the variable capturing the
outcome of interest
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
18
Dependent versus independent
variables


Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to
depend on variability in the independent variable
For example, researchers investigate the extent to
which lung cancer ( the dependent variable)
depends on smoking (the independent variable)
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
19
Dependent Versus Independent
Variables


Investigator may be concerned with the extent to
which patients´perception of pain (the dependent
variable) depends on different nursing action (the
independent variable)
The terms independent variable and dependent
variable are used to indicate direction of influence
rather than causal link
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
20
Dependent versus independent
variables

If we are interested in studying factórs that
influence peopl´s weight, we might consider
for example their height, physical activity,
and diet as independent variable
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
21
Hetrogenity





When an attribute is extremely varied in the group under investigation,
the group is said to be hetrogenous
Variable like gender would have two attributes: male and female
If the amount of variability is limited, the group is described as relatively
homogeneous
Example: for variable height, a group of 2-year-old children is likely to
be more homogeneous than a group of 18-year old adolescents
The degree of variability or hetrogeneity of a group of subjects has
implications for study design
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
22
Data



Research data are the pieces of information obtained in the
course of the investigation in quantitative studies,
researchers identify the variables of interest, develop
operational definitions of those variables and then collect
relevant data from subjects
The actual values of the study variables constitute the data
for the project
Quantitative data that is information in numeric form
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
23
Data


Example: suppose we were conducting a
quantitative study in which a key variable was
depression; we need to measure how depressed
study participants were
We might ask” thinking about the past week, how
depressed would you say you have been on a scale
from 0-10, where 0 means ”not at all” and 10
means ” the most possible”
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
24
Relationship


Researcher are rarely interested in a single isolated
concept or phenomenon except in descriptive
studies
As an example of decriptive study, a researcher
might do research to determine the percaentage of
patients receiving intravenous therapy who
experience IV infiltration versus no infiltration
A relation is a bond or a connection between
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
phenomena
devision of anaesthesia and
2015-07-18

25
Relationship



Quantitative study adress one or more of the following
questions about relationship:does a relationship between
variables exist? Is cigarett smoking related to lung cancer?
What is the direction of the relationship between variables E.g.
Are people who smoke more likely or less likely to get lung
cancer than those who do not ?
How strong is the relationship betwen variables (how powerful
is the relationship between smoking and lung cancer? how
probable is it that smokers will be lung cancer victims?
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
26
Relationship



What is the nature of the relationship between variables ?
(does smoking cause lung cancer?)
One type of relationship is referred to as a cause-effect (or
causal) relationship
Functional relationship (association relationship) relationship
between preterm neonate´s behavioral competence on the
one hand and the infant´s gender and race on the other
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
27
Correlation



In statistics, a measure of the strength of the relationship
between two variables.
It is used to predict the value of one variable given the
value of the other.
For example, a correlation might relate distance from urban
location to gasoline consumption. Expressed on a scale from
-1.0 to +1.0, the strongest correlations are at both
extremes and provide the best predictions.
2015-07-18
28
Key Challenges of conducting
research
Researchers face numerous challenges in conducting
research, including the following:
 Conceptual challenges (How should key concepts
be defined?
 What are the theoretical underpinnings of the study?)
 Financial challenges (How will the study be paid for?

Will available resources be adequate?)
 Administrative challenges (Is there sufficient
time to complete the study? Can the flow of tasks be
adequately managed?)

2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
29
Reliability & Validity



Researchers want their findings to reflect the truth
Research cannot contribute evidence to guide
clinical practice if the findings are inaccurate,
biased, fail adequately to represent the experiences
of the target group or based on a misinterpretation
of the data
Quantitative researchers use several criteria to
assess the quality of a study, and two the most
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
important
are
reliability
and validity
devision of anaesthesia and
2015-07-18
30
Reliability & Validity



Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency (the property
of holding together and retaining its shape) of information
The term is most often associated with the methods used to
measure research variables
Ex. if a thermometer measured bob´s temperature as 98.1ºF
one minute and as 102.5 ºF the next minute, the reliability of
the thermometer would be highly suspect
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
31
Reliability & Validity

Statistical reliability refers to the probability
that the same results would be obtained with
a completely new sample of subjects that is
the results are an accurate reflection of a
wider group than just the particular people
who participated in the study
2015-07-18
32
Reliability & Validity



Validity is a more complex concept that broadly concerns
the soundness of the study´s evidence- that is, whether the
finding are cogent (powerfully persuasive), convincing and
well grounded
Validity question is whether there is evidence to support the
assertion that the methods are really measuring the abstract
concepts that they purport to measure
The importance of having solid conceptual definitions or
research variables as well as high quality methods to
operationalize them should be apparent
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
33
Reliability & Validity

Is a paper and pencil measure of depression really
measuring depression?

Or it is measuring something else, such as loneliness, low
self-esteem, or stress?


Another aspect of validity concerns the quality of the
researcher’s evidence regarding the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable
Did a nursing intervention really bring about improvements
in patient’s outcomes or were other factors responsible for
patient’s progress?
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
34
Bias


It can threaten the study´s validity
Bias is an influence that produces a distortion (Any
undesired change in an signal between input and
the output) in the study results
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
35
Bias

Bias can result from a number of factors
including:





Study participants
Subjectivity of the researcher
Sample characteristics
Faulty methods of data collection
Faulty study design
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
36
Bias


Random bias: a handful of study participants might
fail to provide totally accurate information as a
result of extreme fatigue at the time the data were
collected
Systematic bias; results when the bias is consistent
or uniform. E.g. If a scale consistently measured
peopl´s weights as being 2 ponds heavier than
their true weight, they would be systemetic bias in
the data on weight
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
37
Randomness

Each person has an equal probability of being
selected, no systemetic biases in the make up
of the sample
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
38
Generalizability



Generalizability to assess the extent to which the
findings can be applied to other groups and settings
Design study strong in reliability and validity
The type of people to whom the results might be
generalized, select them nonbiased
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
39
Research Control


Holding constant other influences on the dependent variable
so that the tru relationship between the independent and
dependent variables can be understood
Research control attempts to eliminate contaminating
factors that might cloud the relationship between the
varaibles that are of central interest
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
40
Research control

Researchers must usually analyze a couple of
relationships at a time and put pieces together like
jigsaw puzzle – (a puzzle that requires you to reassemble a
picture that has been mounted on a stiff base and cut into
interlocking pieces)
2015-07-18
Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
devision of anaesthesia and
41
Overview of the research
process in quantitative studies
Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi
An Najah National University
Faculty of Nursing
42
2015-07-18
Major classes of Quantitative




43
Experimantal research, researchers actively
introduce an intervention or treatment
Nonexperimantal researchers collect data
without making changes or introducing RX
Experimantal studies designed to rest causal
relationship
Experimantal offer the possibility of greater
control extraneous variables than
nonexperimantal
2015-07-18
Major steps in a Quantitative study
Phase 1: The conceptual phase


Activities with a stong conceptual or intelletual
element
These activities include:
 reading,
 conceptualizing,
 theorising,
 reconceptualizing and
 reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisers
44
2015-07-18
Major steps in a Quantitative study
Phase 1: The conceptual phase

45
During this stage, researchers call on such skills as:

creativity,
 deductive reasoning (is logic that moves from the
general to the specific), (is the kind of reasoning in
which the conclusion is necessitated by, or reached
from, previously known facts (the premises).
 Insight (penetration: clear or deep perception of a
situation, a feeling of understanding )
 A firm grounding in previous research on the topic of
interest
2015-07-18
Step 1; formulating and delimiting the
problem

Develop a research problem and research questions

Good research depends to a great degree on good questions



Without significant, interesting problem, the most carefully and
skillfully designed research project is of little value
How can this question best be studied to yield high quality
evidence
The identification and research questions must also take into
consideration practical and ethical concerns
46
2015-07-18
Step 2: Reviewing the Related
Literature



47
Quanitative research is typically conducted within the
context of previous knowledge
To bulid on existing theory or research, quantitative
researchers strive to understand what is already known
about a research problem
A thorough literature review provides a foundation on which
to base new knowledge and usually is conducted well before
any data are collected in quantitative studies
2015-07-18
Step 2: Reviewing the related
literature

For clinical problems, it is necessary to learn as much as possible
about the ”status quo” of current procedures relating to the topic
and to review existing practice guidlines or protocols

A familiarization with previous studies is useful in suggesting
research topics or in identifying aspects of a problem about which
more research is needed

A litterature review sometimes preceded the delineation (To draw
or trace the outline of; sketch out) of the research problem
48
2015-07-18
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical
Fieldwork

In addition to refreshing or updating clinical
knowledge based on written work, researchers
embarking on a clinical study benefit from
spending time in clinical settings, discussing the
topic with clinicians and health care administrators,
and observing current practices.
49
2015-07-18
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical
Fieldwork


50
Sterling (2001) notes that such clinical fieldwork
can provide perspectives on recent clinical
trends, current diagnostic procedures, and
relevant health care delivery models;
It can also help researchers better understand
affected clients and the settings in which care is
provided.
2015-07-18
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical
Fieldwork


51
In addition to expanding the researchers’ clinical
and conceptual knowledge, such fieldwork can be
valuable in developing methodologic tools for
strengthening the study.
For example, in the course of clinical fieldwork
researchers might learn what extraneous
variables need to be controlled,
2015-07-18
Step 4: Defining the Framework and
Developing Conceptual Definitions


Theory is the ultimate aim of science in that it transcends
the specifics of a particular time, place, and group of
people and aims to identify regularities in the relationships
among variables.
When quantitative research is performed within the
context of a theoretical framework—that is, when previous
theory is used as a basis for generating predictions that
can be tested through empirical research—the findings
may have broader significance and utility.
52
2015-07-18


Even when the research question is not
embedded in a theory, researchers must have a
clear sense of the concepts under study.
Thus, an important task in the initial phase of a
project is the development of conceptual
definitions.
53
2015-07-18
Step 5: Formulating
Hypotheses


54
A hypothesis is a statement of the
researcher’s expectations about
relationships between the variables under
investigation.
Hypotheses, in other words, are predictions of
expected outcomes; they state the
relationships researchers expect to find as a
result of the study.
2015-07-18
Step 5: Formulating
Hypotheses


55
The research question identifies the concepts
under investigation and asks how the
concepts might be related; a hypothesis is
the predicted answer.
For example, the initial research question
might be phrased as follows: Is preeclamptic
toxemia in pregnant women associated with
stress factors present during pregnancy?
2015-07-18
Step 5: Formulating
Hypotheses


56
This might be translated into the following
hypothesis: Pregnant women with a higher
incidence of stressful events during pregnancy
will be more likely than women with a lower
incidence of stress to experience preeclamptic
toxemia.
Most quantitative studies are designed to test
hypotheses through statistical analysis.
2015-07-18
Phase 2: The design and planning
Phase



Researchers make decision about the methods and
procedures to be used to address the research
questions and plan for the actual collection of data
Methodologic decisions have crucial implications
for the validity and reliability of the study findings
If the methods used to collect and analysze
research data are seriously flawed then the
57evidence from the study may be of little value
2015-07-18
Step 6: Selecting a Research Design



The research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to
the questions being studied and for handling some of the
difficulties encountered during the research process
A wide variety of research designs is available for quantitative
studies, including numerous experimental and nonexperimental
designs
Researchers specify which specific design will be adopted and
what controls will be used to minimize bias and enhance the
58interpretability of results
2015-07-18
Step 6: selecting a Research Design



59
In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be highly
structured with tight controls over extranous variables
Designs indicates what types of comparisons will be made
and where the study will take place
The research design is essentially the architectural
backbone of the study
2015-07-18
Step 7: Developing Protocols for the
Intervention


In experimental research, researchers actively
intervene and create the independent variable, which
means that people in the sample will be exposed to
different treatments or conditions
If we were interested in testing the effect of
biofeedback in treating hypertension, the independent
variable would be biofeedback compared with either
an alternative treatment (e.g. Relaxation therapy)or
with no RX
60
2015-07-18
Step 7: Developing Protocols for the
Intervent


61
The intervention protocol for the study would need to be
developed, specifying exactly what the biofeedback
treatment would entail (who would administer it, how
frequently and over how long a period the treatment would
last, what specific equipment would be used, and what the
alternative condition would be)
The goal of well articulated protocols is to have all subjects
in each group treated in the same way
2015-07-18
Step 8: Identifying the population to be
studied




Before selecting subjects, quantitative researchers need to
know what characteristics participants should possess
Researchers and others using the findings also need to know
whom study results can be generalized
During the planning phase of quantitative studies, researcher
must identify the population to be studied
The term population refers to the aggregate or totality of those
conforming (be similar) to a set of specifications
62
2015-07-18
Step 8: Identifying the population to
be studied

We might specify nurses (RNs) and residence in the US
as attributes (a construct whereby objects or individuals
can be distinguished) of interest:

The study population would then consist of all licensed
RNs who reside in US. We could in a similar fasion
define a population consisting of all children younger
than 10 years of age with muscular dystrophy in
Canada
63
2015-07-18
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan



A sample of subject who are a subset (a set whose
members are members of another set) of the
population
It is practical and less costly to collect data from a
sample than from an entire (Having no part excluded
or left out; whole) population
The risk is that the sample might not adequatly reflect
the population´s behaviors, traits, symptoms, or
64
beliefs.
2015-07-18
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan



65
Various methods of obtaining samples are available, these
methods vary in cost, effort and skills required but there
adequacy is assessed by the same criterion:
The representativeness of the selected sample, that is the
quality of the sample for quantitative studies depends on
how typical, or representative the sample is of the
population with respect to variables of concern in the
study
Suphosticated sampling procedures can produce samples
that have a high likelohood of being presentative
2015-07-18
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan



The most sophisticated methods are probability sampling
methods, which use random procedures for selecting subjects
In a probability sample, every member of the population has an
equal probability of being included in the sample
With nonprobability sampling by contrast there is no way of
ensurig that each member of population could be selected
66
2015-07-18
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan


67
The risk of bias (unrepresentative) sample
is greater
The design of a sampling plan includes the
selection of a sampling method, the
specification of the sample size (i.e.
Number of subjects) and the development
of procedures for recruiting subjects
2015-07-18
Step 10. Specifying methods to measure the
research variables




Quantitative researchers must develop methods to observe or
measure the research variables as accurately as possible
Based on the conceptual definitions, the researcher selects or
design appropriate methods of operationalizing the variables
and collecting data
A variety of quantitative data collection approaches exit
Biophysiologic measurements often play an important role in
clinical research
68
2015-07-18
Step 10. Specifying Methods to
Measure the Research Variables


69
Through self reports, another popular method of
data collection, subjects are asked directly about
their feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal
traits (for example, in an interview with research
personnel)
Another technique is observation, wherein
researchers collect data by observing and
recording aspects of people´s behavior
2015-07-18
Step 10. Specifying Methods to
Measure the Research Variables


70
Data collection methods vary in the degree of
structure imposed on subjects
Quantitative approaches tend to be fairly
structured, involving the use of a formal
instrument that elicit the same information from
every subject sometimes researchers need to
develop their own instruments but more often
they use or adapt measuring instruments that
have been developed by others
2015-07-18
Step 10. Specifying methods to
measure the research variables


71
The task of measuring research variables and developing
a data collection plan is a complex and challenging
process that permits a great deal of creativity and choice
Before finalizing the data collection plan, researchers must
carefully evaluate whether the chosen methods cupture
key concepts accurately
2015-07-18
Step 11: Developing Methods for
Safeguarding Human/Animal Right



Most nursing research involves human subjects, some
studies involve animals
In either case procedures need to be developed to
ensure that the study adhers to ethical principles
For example, forms often need to be developed to
document that subjects´participation in the study was
voluntary
72
2015-07-18
Step 11: Developing Methods for
Safeguarding Human/Animal Right


Each aspect of the study plan needs to be
reviewed to determine whether the rights of
subjects have been adequatly protected
Often the review involves a formal presentation
to an external committee
2015-07-18
73
Step 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the
Resaerch Plan



Before collecting research data, researchers often perform a
number of test to ensure that plans will work smoothly
Example, they may evaluate the readability of any written
materials to determine if people with below-average reading
skills can comprehend them
They may need to test whether technical equipment is
functioning properly
74
2015-07-18
Step 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the
Resaerch Plan



If questions are used, it is important to know whether
respondents understand questions or find certain ones
objectionable (Arousing disapproval ) ; this is usually
referred to as pretesting the questionnaire
During final study preparations, researchers also have to
determine the type of training to provide to those
responsible for collecting data
If researchers have concerns about their study plans they
may undertake a pilot study which is a small-scale version
or trail run of the major study
2015-07-18
75
Step 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the
Resaerch Plan



Researchers have their research plan critiqued by peers,
consultants or other reviewers to obtain substantive, clinical,
or methodologic feedback before implementing the plan when
researchers seek financial support for the study
A proposal typically is submitted to a funding source and
reviewers of the proposed plan usually suggest improvement
Students conducting study as part of a course or degree
requirement have their plans reviewed by faculty advisors
76
2015-07-18
Step 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the
Resaerch Plan


Researchers are well advised to ask individuals
external to the project to assess preliminary plans
Experience researchers with fresh perspectives
can often be invaluable in identifying pitfalls and
shortcoming that otherwise might not have been
recognized
2015-07-18
77
Pase 3: The empirical phase



Involves collecting research data and preparing those data for
analysis
The empirical phase is one of the most time-consuming parts of
the investigation, the amount of time spent collecting data
varies from one study to the next
If data are collecting by distributing a written questionnaire to
intact groups, this task may be accomplished in a matter of
days. Data collection requires several weeks or even months of
work
78
2015-07-18
Step 13: Collecting the Data


The researcher´s plan specifies procedures for the actual
collection of data (where & when the data will be gathered), for
describing the study to participants and for recording
information
Researchers must be sure that enough materials are available
to complete the study
79
2015-07-18
Step 13: Collecting the Data


That participants are informed of the time and
place that their presence may be required, that
research personel (interviewers) are conscientios
(extreme care and great effort) in keeping their
appointments, that schedules do not conflict
Suitable system of maintaining confidentiality of
information has been implemented
2015-07-18
80
Step 14: Preparing the Data for
Analysis



Look through questionnaire if they are usable,
sometimes forms are left almost entirely blank or
contain other indications of misinterpretation or
noncompliance
Another step is to assign identification numbers to the
responses or observations of different subjects if this
was not done previously
Coding
of the data is needed at this point
2015-07-18
81
Step 14: Preparing the Data for
Analysis



Coding involves the translation of verbal data into
numeric form according to a specified plan
This mean assigning numeric codes to categorial
variables as gender (1 for female and 2 for male)
Coding might be needed to categorize narrative
(something told or recounted in the form of a
story) responses to certain questions
2015-07-18
82
Step 14: Preparing the Data for
Analysis

Patient´verbatim (the same words used by a writer or speaker )
"a direct quotation” responses to a question about the quality of
nursing care they received during hospitalization might be
coded into
 Positive reactions (1)
 Negative reaction (2)
 Neutral reaction (3)
 Or mixed reaction (4)
Another preliminary step involves transferring the data from
2015-07-18
written
document into computer files for subsequent analysis
 83
Phase 4: the Analytic Phase


Quantitative data gathered in the emprical phase
are not reported in raw form
They are subjected to analysis and interpretation
which occurs in the fourth major phase of a
project
84
2015-07-18
Step 15: Analyzing the Data


Statistical analysis cover a broad range of
techniques from simple procedures (computering
an evarage) to complex methods,
Some methods are computationally formidable
(extremely impressive in strength or excellence),
the underlying logic of statistical tests is relatively
easy to grasp
85
2015-07-18
Step 16: Interpreting the
Results


86
Interpretation is the process of making a sense
(A capacity to appreciate or understand) and of
examining their implications
The process of interpretation begins with an
attempt to explain the findings within the context
of the theoretical framework, prior empirical
(Relying on or derived from observation or
experiment) knowledge and clinical experience
2015-07-18
Step 16: Interpreting the
Results


If research hypotheses have been supported an
explanation of the results may be straightforward because
the findings fit into a previously conceived (To be of the
opinion that) argument
If hypothesis are not supported, researcher must explain
why this might be so, is the underlying conceptualization
(the act of creating something by thinking) wrong or was
it inappropriate for the research problem?
2015-07-18
87
Step 16: Interpreting the
Results


Or do the findings reflect problems with research
methods rather than the framework (was the
measuring tool inappropriate? )
To provide sound explanatios, researchers not
only must be familiar with clinical issues, prior
research and conceptual underpinning, but must
be able to understand methodologic limitations of
the study
88
2015-07-18
Step 16: Interpreting the
Results


The interpretation of the findings must take into
account all available evidence about the study´s
reliability and validity
Researchers need to evaluate critically the
descision they made in designing the study and to
recommend alternatives to other interested in the
same research problems
2015-07-18
89
Phase 5: the Dissemination Phase



The analytic phase brings researchers full circle
It provides answers to the questions posed in the
first phase of the project
Researchers´responsibilities are not complete until
the study results are dissminated
90
2015-07-18
Step 17: Communicating the Findings
A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing practice if the
results are not communicated
 Final task of a research project is the preparation of a
research report that can be shared with others
 Research reports can take various forms:
 Term papers
 Dissertation
 Journal articles
 Presentations at professional conferences
 Journal article-reports appearing in such professional journal usually are the most useful because they are available to a
91broad, international audience

2015-07-18
18: Utilizing the Findings in
Practice


92
The concluding step of a high quality study is to
plan for its utilization in practice settings
Nurse researcher may not themselves be in a
position to implement a plan for utilizing
research findings, they can contribute to the
process by including in their research reports
recommendations regarding how the evidence
from the study could be incorporated into the
practice
2015-07-18