Transcript From Shop Class to Industrial Technology: A History of

From Shop Class to Industrial
Technology: A History of Federal
Legislation Regarding Vocational
Education in Secondary Schools from
1960 – 2006
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the course SED 570
By Travis Zimmerman
Organization of Research
• Historical context
• Public image of vocational programs
• Prevailing themes
– Dropout Rates
– High Risk Students
– Social Mobility
Questions of Research
• At what points in the last forty years did we as
the American public decide that the support of
vocational education was a key to increasing
student interest in graduation?
• Do these programs actually affect dropout
rates at all?
• Do these programs offer a real future in the
job market to students who are not willing or
prepared to go to college, thus contributing to
the social mobility of students?
Significance
• Knowing the answers to these
questions might limit the desire for the
reduction of funding in the vocational
education programs, or the desire for
any kind of educational reform that
damages the chances for the social
mobility of high-risk youth
Hypothesis
Generalizations concerning the cyclical nature
of federal legislation regarding vocational
education in public schools can be made
based on the fact that such legislation has
repeatedly addressed very similar issues
such as academic achievement, economic
opportunity, the perceived value of vocational
education in public schools, and the
availability of vocational education as it
relates to high school dropout rates.
Null Hypothesis
• The issues addressed by federal
legislation or the historical context from
which they stem over the period of time
in question are too disparate to form
any generalizations.
Assumptions
• Reports on social mobility, dropout
rates, public image and public testimony
regarding vocational education, unless
specifically otherwise stated, are
representative of the U.S. as a whole -not any individual state.
Limitations
• National Center for Educational
Statistics (NCES), as the principle
source for most U.S. Department of
Education research studies, will be the
primary source of information for this
paper.
Definition of Terms
• Vocational Education – those subjects which
deal directly with training in the fields of
technology, trade, agriculture and
homemaking
• Dropout Rate - Percent of individuals who
voluntarily withdraw from high school without
meeting the necessary requirements for
acquiring a high school diploma. This rate in
this study does not reflect those students who
subsequently obtained a General
Equivalency Diploma.
Definition of Terms (cont…)
• Graduation Rate - For the purposes of
this study, graduation rate will be
consistent with the National Center for
Education Statistics data analyzing the
ratio of high school graduates compared
with the U.S. population of those 17
years of age. (See NCES data)
Definition of Terms (cont…)
• Academic Education Track - a high school program
that focuses on mathematics, science, social studies
and literature and the assessment thereof as the
primary conduit through which graduation can be
achieved. Such a program will place more emphasis
on extra academic subjects in lieu of career or
vocational education courses.
• Socio-economic class - A wealth-based system of
classification divided into three segments, low
income, middle income and high income, based on
total reported family income from filed tax returns.
Definition of Terms (cont…)
• Social Mobility - Social mobility is the
ability of a person to move from a lower
income group to a higher one. This is
generally based on opportunity afforded
by education and training within a
particular discipline or vocation.
Review of related literature
• Primary Sources
– The National Vocational Education (SmithHughes) Act of 1917 (Public Law No. 347,
Sixty-fourth Congress-S.703)
– Press Release: “President Bush Proposes
Record $57 Billion for FY 2005 Education
Budget” February 2, 2004 by Susan Aspey
and Jim Bradshaw
Review of Related Literature
• Secondary Sources – Reports to
Congress
– “National Assessment of Vocational
Education: Final Report to Congress,
Executive Summary” by Marsha
Silverberg, Elizabeth Warner, Michael
Fong, and David Goodwin
– “The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
Technical Education Act of 1998:
Background and Implementation” by
Rebecca R. Skinner and Richard N. Apling
Review of Related Literature
• Secondary Sources – Public Image and
Issues of Vocational Education
– Career Education: a Preposal for Reform by
Sidney P. Marland, Jr.
– Career Education: Definition and Evaluation
published by the American Industrial Arts
Association, Colleen P. Stamm, Ed.
– “A Federal-Level Legislative Story: The Brief Life
of Career Education” by John F. Jennings
– The Role of the Secondary Schools in the
Preparation of Youth for Employment by Jacob J.
Kaufman, Carl J. Schaefer, Morgan V. Lewis,
David W. Stevens and Elaine W. House
Review of Related Literature
– “The Unfinished Agenda: The Role of
Vocational Education in the High School”
sponsored by the Office of Vocational and
Adult Education, Washington, DC
– Time Magazine – “Dropout Nation” by
Nathan Thornburgh
– But What If I Don’t Want to Go to College?
: A Guide to Success Through Alternative
Education by Harlow G. Unger
Discussion - History
• Federal Acts
– Smith-Hughes Act 1917
– Vocational Education Act of 1963
– Career Education Incentive Act 1977
– Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of
1984
– No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Discussion - History
• Trend – Gradual movement from highly
specified allocation of funds for
vocational education (1917) to state and
local government responsibility in wide
application of funds and strict academic
accountability requirements for
continued funding (2006).
Discussion – Public Image
• By the 1960s, many key proponents of
vocational education recorded many
disparities of perception between
academic and vocational education.
The latter was seen as “second-class”
education for people with no real future.
This disturbing public image, though
less prevalent, still exists today.
Discussion – Dropouts and
Social Mobility
• Legislation aimed at improving vocational
education has always included socioeconomic factors and dropout rates among
the list of policy justifications.
• While many people agree that dropout rates
have steadily declined since the 1960s, many
people disagree on which instruments to trust
for accuracy regarding drop-out rates.
Discussion – Dropouts and
Social Mobility
• With the movement in the last decade
towards academic achievement as the
primary goal of public schools, high
stakes testing has played a more
important role in the lives of students.
Those who do not see college as the
ultimate goal of their scholastic career
may view the academic class
regulations and bias inherent in the
tests with more criticism and disdain.
Discussion – Dropouts and
Social Mobility
• According to the NCES, high risk
populations– particularly those of lowincome status consist of the majority of
dropouts in the U.S.
• When asked why students dropped out
of school, the 3rd most recorded
reasons are either a desire to work full
time or a desire to make money.
Discussion – Dropouts and
Social Mobility
• Vocational education does contribute to
the reduction of the dropout rate in
communities in which there is a high
degree of cooperation with local
industries and the schools.
• Those with certifications from vocational
education will have a greater chance of
employment and opportunities for social
mobility.
Conclusion
• Historically, there has been a trend of
increased federal support for vocational
education, although recently, earmarked
expenditures have been pooled into a
general commitment to academic
education.
• The public image of vocational
education has played a large roll in its
limited success at reducing dropout
rates.
Conclusion
• The evidence strongly suggests that a
reduction in government and state
support of vocational education will
result in the limiting of opportunity for
high-risk populations. However, despite
great leaps in federal support in the 60s
and 70s, the dropout rate maintained a
steady decrement that did not fluctuate
with the addition of millions of dollars of
taxpayer money.
Conclusion
• From my research, I conclude that
federal support of vocational education
has been greatly influenced by many
factors dependant on historical context.
In this light, no generalizations can be
made about what will influence further
federal legislation. This may or may not
be a result of the limited ability of the
federal government to implement policy
at the local level.