Diverging Destinies?

Class Variations in Women’s Marital, Child Bearing, and Employment Patterns Sharon Sassler Department of Policy Analysis & Management Cornell University January 2009

Demographic Trends Reshaping Context for Marriage and Parenting

 Unprecedented change in family processes  Marital delay  But still forming relationships  Increase in cohabitation  Rise in non-marital childbearing  Women ’ s labor force participation has reached a plateau – but at a high level.

 Experiences of female lawyers & academics differ widely from those of Administrative Assistants . . .

Outline of talk

1. Review of demographic trends: a.

Marital delay b.

c.

d.

Increases in cohabitation Rise in non-marital childbearing Class differences in marriage 2. Data on female labor force participation a.

b.

By Marital status Among women who had a child in previous year 3. Results from interviews with cohabiting women regarding family building desires a.

Distinctions between the Middle- & Working-class: 1.

Ideal timing of children; 2.

Important prerequisites (e.g., Marriage? Career?).

Median Age at First Marriage, by Sex

19 17 23 21 29 27 25 27.5

25.5

Men Women 15 195 0 195 2 195 4 195 6 195 8 196 0 196 2 196 4 196 6 196 8 197 0 197 2 197 4 197 6 197 8 198 0 198 2 198 4 198 6 198 8 199 0 199 2 199 4 199 6 199 8 200 0 200 2 200 4 200 6 US Census Bureau, Current Population Survey . http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/ms2.xls

While Americans are delaying marriage, they are not opting out of romantic relationships 6,000,000

Number of cohabiting couples captured in the decennial census

4,881,377 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 439,000 523,000 1,589,000 2,856,000 1960 1970 1980 1990 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

2000

As cohabitation has become normative, its functions have changed  As of 2002, 49% of men and 50% of women ages 15 to 44 had ever cohabited with a partner.

 As cohabitation becomes more normative, the likelihood that it leads to marriage has declined.

 Cohabitation has increased the most dramatically among those with a High School degree or some college education.

Changes in Shares Cohabiting, by Educational Attainment

Percent of Women 15-44 Who Have Ever Cohabited, by Educational Attainment 30 20 10 0 80 70 60 50 40 43 59 69 32 49 69 30 39 58 31 37 46 1987 1995 2002 LTHS HS/GED Some college BA or more

Source: 1987, 1995 from Bumpass & Lu 2000; 2002 from NSFG reports

40 35 30 % 25 20 15 10 5 0

Increase in Non-Marital Births

* *

36.9% in 2006

*

Source: U.S. C.B., Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003; NCHS, Births: Final Data, Vol. 51, No. 2.; Vol. 52, No. 10; Vol. 53, No. 9; Preliminary data for 2005.

Women are increasingly forming families within cohabiting unions

 Cohabiting unions often include children non-marital relationship.

– either born to cohabiting parents, or children whose single parents enter into cohabiting unions following the dissolution of a marriage or a prior  About half of all non-marital births are to women who are living with their partner (Sigle-Rushton & McLanahan, 2000)  Estimates of the proportion of minor children estimated to live with a cohabiting parent range from one-quarter (Graefe & Lichter 1999) to a forty percent (Bumpass & Lu 2000) of all children.

Women in the middle education tier have experienced a large increase in single parenting

The family behaviors of highly educated women have changed in recent decades  In the past, educated women were less likely to wed than their counterparts with fewer years of schooling.

 That trend has reversed.

  In 2000, college educated women aged 25 to 34 were more likely to be married than women a high school degree or less (Lichter & Qian, 2004).

Divorce rates are also lower among college educated couples than among those with less schooling (Martin, 2004).

Marital Status of Women Aged 25 to 45, by Educational Attainment 100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

29.1

46.7

25.8

51.6

24.5

54.5

26.7

61.7

24.7

64.7

26 63 23.7

64.3

Less than high school HS graduate/ or GED Some college / Associate's Degree Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Professional Degree Doctorate Married* Divorced Separated Never Married Source: Author calculations using 2007 American Community Survey.

Percent of Women (25 - 45) in Labor Force, by Marital & Parental Status & Education

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Less than High School HS graduate/ or GED Married Some college / Associate's Degree Divorced Bachelor's Degree Never Married Master's Degree Professional Degree Had Child in Prior Year* Doctorate Source: Author calculations using 2007 American Community Survey.

 Class Differences in Prerequisites for Parenting Working-class women are most often mention a desire for financial security before parenting.

“I wouldn’t say that I can’t wait tables and have a kid, but I’d like to have more options professionally. I mean, I’m not living paycheck to paycheck, but I’m not getting as much money saved. . . . I was actually hoping to have a proportion of my loan’s paid off by the time I did have kids.”

-

Shelley, 28 year old waitress & student  They also realize that financial stability is not easily attained, and are unwilling to forego children.

“I see having a family as more solid in my mind than having a marriage, for some reason.”

-

Caitlin, 26 year old waitress & student

What do middle-class women mention as prerequisites for parenting?

 Wanting to defer until they were “ready,” with most mentioning late 20s/30 as the right time.

 Being married – mentioned by nearly half of those who wanted children (compared to 3 spontaneous mentions among WC women).

 Having a few years to spend with their spouse prior to becoming parents.

 Being established in their careers.

Stability – occupational & relational – prime concerns for middle-class women  “I want to finish everything I started in my career because god knows that will NOT happen after kids, I don’t think.” - Karen, 24 year old woman, engaged  “Late 20s, early 30s for me . . . I will either be in a job or be able to secure a job with some degree of stability. And hopefully my partner, A, would have achieved a higher level of stability and satisfaction in his work as well. - Rachel, 25 year old grad student  “Besides financially? We just need to have our freedom first together, I guess that newlywed freedom.” - Ariel, 25 year old woman.

Other findings suggesting diverging outcomes . . .

 Middle class women emphasized expecting to be married prior to having children.  A third of the MC women reported they were engaged, had diamond rings, and wedding dates.   College educated cohabiting women were utilizing highly effective (hormonal) forms of birth control, and did not report experiencing pregnancy scares -- as did many of our working-class respondents.

They are also less likely to already have children.

 These reports are consistent with empirical data.

Conclusions

 The work / family juggle for professional women is often substantively different from that of less educated women.

 Professional women are more likely to benefit from the institutional and financial benefits of marriage, as well as work-place supports.

 Women with less than a college degree are less likely to get married, stay married, or have children within marital unions. Their job prospects are also not rosy.

 Take-away? It is imperative that more attention be focused on alleviating the family building challenges facing women that are neither the most nor the least advantaged.