Transcript Westward Expansion - Leleua Loupe
Westward Expansion
Post Civil War Expansion & Indian Policy 1860 -1890
Study GuideIdentifications:
• Force Policy • Peace Policy • Nativism • Social Darwinism • The Indian Problem • William Tecumseh Sherman • Black Kettle • Sand Creek and Washita Massacres • Lakota Resistance & Treaty of Fort Laramie • Appropriation Act 1871 • The Dawes Act • Ghost Dance & wounded Knee
Study Guide Questions
What Characterized Westward Expansion?
What factors encouraged Americans to go west?
What new technologies and businesses facilitated westward expansion?
What Characterized Indian Policy?
What tactics did Americans and United States government use to facilitate expansion?
What was the impact of Indian policy?
Post Reconstruction America
• • • Industrialization & Immigration surged post civil war – – Increased Disparity of Wealth Exploited labor: minorities, women, children – Labor struggle – Discrimination of newer immigrants 1830-1860 Nativism directed at Irish Catholics & Jews
Social Darwinism:
“inferior races” perceived as endangering American civilization & Life way
System of labor Repression
• • Minorities & Labor classes in general persecuted socially, politically & economically – African Americans • Plessy Vs. Ferguson, 1896 • Segregation, Disfranchisement, Jim Crow Native Americans • Policy of “Containment” of Plains Tribes • 1850 Act for the Protection & Government of Indians – – – Compared to Jim Crow Laws of the south, or Black codes No rights or legal protections System of “apprenticeships”
System of Labor Repression
• • Chinese in California • 1870-1943 Naturalization Act – Prevented Chinese from becoming citizens • Chinese Exclusion Act 1882 Hispanics In California in Southwest & California • Miners Tax 1850 – Targeted “Mexican” in 1850 and Chinese in 1852 – People Vs. Hall, ruled that Chinese were legally indian
War for the Far West
Beginning in 1848 • Mineral wealth (Gold Booms) and thirst for land for farms and ranches – Pike’s Peak, Colorado
• • Immigration to the west – 1865 – 1900, largest migration of people in the history of the United States to the trans-Mississippi west Home Stead Act, 1862: Promise of free land – Ranchers – Farmers
Union & Pacific RR
• Rail Road expansion – Corporate efforts to usurp Indian lands – Indians as chief obstacle to progress – Supported Appropriation Act 1871 that destroyed political existence of the tribes
White Expansion: Indian territory (Kansas to Texas) 7,000 whites in 1880, 110,000 by 1889
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Policy makers
Solutions offered to the “Indian Problem” 1. Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer – force policy of extermination – Indians heathen & savage while whites were Christian & civilized 2. – Commissioner of Indian Affairs Francis Amasa Walker Promoted Peace Policy – Advocated reservations, assimilation through education & Christianization – Scientific management -Viewed the machine and the market as great forces of civilizations in America
Force Policy
• General William Tecumseh Sherman in 1866 led the postwar army and states that the military should : – Viewed the Railroad as instrumental in the “Great Battle of Civilization” against “barbarism” – “kill the Lakota, even to their extermination of men, women and children” – “Nits Breed Lice”
Southern Cheyenne
• Called on George Eayre to carry out Force Policy – Attack on peaceful settlement • Began regional plains wars » Black Kettle Survived • • Black Kettle’s Band of Southern Cheyenne Black kettle: – Advocate Peace – Treaty of Fort wise, 1861 – Delegation to meet Lincoln in Washington, 1863
Sand Creek Reservation
• • 1858 Gold found In Pikes Peak Treaty of Fort Wise, 1861 – Relinquished most land – Created Sand Creek Reservation • •
Barren Land Starvation
Colorado Territory
• • • • Governor Evans issued a proclamation: August 11, 1864 – authorizing all citizens in Colorado territory to seek out, kill and destroy all indigenous peoples with reward. Advocates of peaces urged end to all out warfare – Fall council, Camp Weld, Colorado – Black Kettle and 6 other chiefs agreed to peace – Black Kettle led 500 to settle at Sand Creek for the winter Brigadier General Samuel R. Curtis Wrote to Cl. Chivington, “Make the Indians Suffer more”
Sand Creek, Black Kettle Cheyenne
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Sand Creek Massacre, Colorado, 1864 Cl. John M. Chivington , a Methodist minister
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1 st & 3 rd Colorado Volunteer Calvary
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4 12-pound Howitzers Black Kettle’s Sleeping (Kettle Survived again)
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"THEY WERE SCALPED, THEIR BRAINS KNOCKED OUT; THE MEN USED THEIR KNIVES, RIPPED OPEN WOMEN, CLUBBED LITTLE CHILDREN, KNOCKED THEM IN THE HEAD WITH THEIR RIFLE BUTTS, BEAT THEIR BRAINS OUT, MUTILATED THEIR BODIES IN EVERY SENSE OF THE WORD” Men’s scrotum kept as souvenirs and tobacco pouches
Perspectives on Massacre
• Robert Bent a local rancher commented “There seemed to be an indiscriminate slaughter of men, women and children” • The Rocky Mountain News proclaimed: “Colorado soldiers have again covered themselves with glory,” – Chivington’s dictum, “nits make lice” allowed locals to feel justified about the slaughter of women, elderly and children.
Indian Policy
• • • Call for investigation into American Indian Affairs Movement against Genocide or extermination as Indian policy – Bloodshed of Civil War – Shrinking military budget – Severely reduced indigenous population Call for reform & diplomacy – Campaigns against Indians violent & threatened perception of white morality – National mood was reform – Grudgingly began to lean towards the reservation system as a solution to the Indian problem.
Doolittle Commission & the Peace Policy
• Senator James Doolittle under the administration of Andrew Johnson led an investigation into native people. – In 1867 The Report on the Condition of Indian Tribes or the
Doolittle Report
• ( Helen Hunt Jackson 1881 A Century of Dishonor) – Touched of a national debate about American Indian policies – Force Policy Vs. Peace Policy
Advocacy for Peace Policy
• • Commissioner of Indian affairs Lewis V Bogy – entered into the fray of those in favor of the peace policy • which promoted negotiated settlements with the tribes and established the reservation system. 1850-80s warfare engulfed the advancing frontier. Invading Americans bore ultimate responsibility. – General Philip Sheridan for example declared of the Indians “We took away their country and their means of support, broke up their mode of living, their habits of life, introduced disease and decay among them, and it was for this and against this that they made war. Could anyone expect less?”
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Policy of Containment or “Concentration”, 1851
Compulsory removal and relocation Concentration on Reservations Relinquishment of life way and identity – Army of agents, reformers, missionaries and educators Strict government control Indian Education – President Johnson • Nathanial G Taylor as Commissioner of Indian Affairs – advocated the recognition of 2 reservations, » northern plains tribes north of Nebraska, » southern plains tribes south of Kansas.
President Grant continued the “ peace commission” and reservation system.
• 1869 Congress created the Board of Indian Commissioners • composed of prominent white men who professed remove corruption within the system of Indian affairs. •
Cherokee Tobacco, 1870
– congressional laws were superior to Indian treaties – treaties with foreign nations were superior to those made with Indian nations. • 1871, Appropriations Act – nations no longer be recognized as an independent political entity – No longer position to negotiate treaty’s » » wards of the state Denied rights as members of sovereign nations.
Impact of Treaties and Peace Policy
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Reduction of Indian Territory
Continual erosion of Indian power Punished the nations for involvement in the civil war Effort to destroy power, economics, land bases and resources.
Whites purged Kansas of native people. – “a set of miserable, dirty, lousy, blanketed, thieving, lying, sneaking, murdering, graceless, faithless, gut eating skunks” who should be exterminated.
Forced Removal
• Osages chose to stay on allotments whites attacked them, murdered, burned, and drove them from their homes. Those who survived joined the Osages in Indian territory Ponca Agency: Pawnees, Otoes, Missouri's, Tonkawa's, and Ponca's, Nez Perce and Palouse – Dire straights on the reservations • outlawing by Americans, criminals and military, continued rape and murder etc.
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Resistance in the Southern Plains 1860-90
Federal Peace Commission met with Kiowa, Kiowa-apache, Comanche, Cheyenne, Arapaho – treaties to relinquished their claims to the lands north of the Arkansas River • `issue of band leadership, democracy and treaty fraud
Treaties
• • Established reservations US agreed to prevent settlers from moving into Indian lands • Agreement not honored • Americans, businessmen, ranchers, farmers demanded land and further containment – – Senate failed to ratify the treaties Destroyed Buffalo • RR businessmen began surveying lands – Whites blamed native people for the conflict arguing the stood in the way of progress, business and civilization.
Military Campaigns
• • 1867 General Winfield Scott Hancock – Desire to clear the southern plains & western trails of resistance fighters • Charged with peace negotiations with tribes, ordered burning of a Cheyenne village Destroy resistance fighters – Military expedition against Ogallala Sioux & Cheyenne village without warning – Campaigned against the Kiowa's, Comanche's, Arapahos, Cheyenne's
Medicine Lodge Treaty
• Peace Commission: Medicine Lodge, Kansas – They urged native Americans to end their way of life and settle peacefully onto reservations – Government would Provide • Food • Housing • medical care • education • civilization
Comanche Chief Ten Bears
• • • They did not start the war They did not want: – White civilization – White homes – Confinement on Reservations They wanted – to continue to live freely as their ancestors had
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Reservations
Reordering of life • New and unnatural situation • End to self determined travel, including to sacred places • • – Spiritual and economic restrictions Changes of yearly activities of the tribes Agents of the government, civilian and military, began dictating the movement and activities Disease Malnutrition & Starvation The government forgot to fulfill their agreement to deliver food and supplies to Indians living peacefully on the reservations – Some youth began raiding settlements for supplies and hunting the Buffalo triggering new conflict and beginning another round of military campaigns.
Results of Peace Policy
• • • • • Malnutrition Small pox, measles, cholera and other disease Warfare Low birth rate High mortality rate.
• Army at fault for pursuing policies detrimental to the Indians.
Military Campaigns
• Following signing of Medicine Lodge Treaty and removal of Arapaho and Cheyenne from Colorado and Kansas to Indian Territory in Oklahoma – Black Kettle and the survivors of the Sand Creek Massacre had joined other southern Cheyenne and other tribes at the Washita River
Custer struck in the predawn hours in November 1868 killing 102 women and children and men including Black Kettle and his wife.
Killed 800 Cheyenne horses and burned 51 Tipi’s 53 women and children captive
Washita Massacre
Surrender
• • • Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche, Kiowa-Apache Surrender at Fort Cobb Reservation administered through Fort Sill
Red River Wars
• • Soldiers continued to patrol the region to round up people who refused to join the reservations 1870 in search of food people returning to the plains found thousands of bloating carcass – Destruction of Buffalo prompted last stand
Genocide of Buffalo
• Military and civilian officials encouraged extermination of the herds to destroy native culture and resistance • Without Buffalo the plains Indians would starve 9 million slaughtered , 1872 - 1875
Resistance of the Northern Plains
• Arapaho & Lakota – signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) • Agreed to move to reservations in what is now South Dakota in exchange – provisions & money – Sacred Black Hills and Powder River Country closed to white expansion – Included “civilizing” articles to force agricultural lifestyle, mission-izing and English education • Gold Discovered in Black Hills – increased conflict: opening up of the northwestern plains to expansion and re-settlement – – Whites continuously violated treaties and Indian rights.
Government seized lands in 1877
Black Hills Gold
• Between 1868-74 whites and natives clashed • 1874 gold found in the Black hills of the Dakotas – mining and military invasion – Government and military did not honor the treaties that forbade expansion or mining interests in the region. – The United states pushed the Lakota to War when they refused to settle onto a reservation.
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Military Preparation
Generals Sherman, Sheridan, Crook and Terry anticipated war while Lakota, Non treaty Cheyenne, Arapaho and allies prepared for war – Crazy Horse of the Ogallala – Sitting Bull, Black moon and Gall of the Hunk papa group of Teton Sioux – Lame Deer and Hump of the Miniconjous Sitting Bull
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Custer’s Last Stand, 1876
November 1875: Colonel George Armstrong Custard sought to drive the Indians out of the Black Hills after treaty negotiations broke down • January the government announced they would hunt down Indians outside reservations Little Big Horn, or “Greasy Grass” present day Montana – Custard walked into the hub of Indian Resistance, 12,000 warriors of Lakota and Northern Cheyenne led by Sitting Bull – Wiped out Custard and his unit
1875-1881
• • • 1875-1881 the army pursued the plains nations until they fled to Canada or were removed to reservations Starvation & Disease = surrender Treaty promises – provide food, housing and medical treatment – Murder of Crazy Horse
Dawes Act 1887
• Use of Walkers’ Scientific Management to “reform” the Indian in a technological society culminated in Dawes Act – Proposed to break up reservations • Accelerate transformation of Indian into individual property owner, more easily dispossess tribes of remaining lands – Allotted 160 acres to each family head – Sold surplus lands: Over the 47 years of the Act's life, about 90 million acres of treaty land — about two thirds of the 1887 land base Americans, and about 90,000 Indians were made landless — was lost to Native • Assured destruction of tribes, availability of new lands to whites and assimilation
The Ghost dance
• 1888 by Paiute holy man Wovoka from Nevada – The earth would soon perish and then come alive again in a pure, aboriginal state, to be inherited by the Indians, including the dead, for an eternal existence free from suffering.
– To earn this new reality, however, Indians had to live harmoniously and honestly, cleanse themselves often, and shun the ways of the whites, especially alcohol, the destroyer
Spread of Ghost dance
Kicking Bear, a Miniconjou Teton Lakota, made a pilgrimage to Nevada to learn about this new "religion"
Emphasized the possible elimination of the whites
Wounded Knee
1890 banned Ghost Dance Military Campaign In Wounded Knee ended in the killing of entire band of 350
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Wounded knee
Miniconjou Chief Big Foot lies dead in the snow. He was among the first to die on December 29, 1890
Lost Bird
• 3 days following the slaughter – An infant girl found with a buckskin cap with the American flag embroidered – Brigadier General L.W. Colby, adopted the infant he re-named Marguerite • The Indians called her “Lost Bird,” passed in 1862
Aftermath – Boarding Schools
• • Military south to punish most native leaders – disarmed – stripped naked – placed in cramped stables • Fort Sill, Fort Reno where soldiers – fed them raw meat and slop – took everything they owned – placed them in shackles treating them like prisoners of war Sending them to Pratt-------boarding school system is created
Origin of the Off-Reservation Indian Boarding School System
• Federal Indian Policy – “The only good Indian, is a dead Indian” Reformed Indian Policy “Kill the Indian, save the man” • Richard Henry Pratt- Fort Marion, St. Augustine, Florida.
– 3 years – warriors of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Comanche,Caddo
“Transformation”
Miss Harriet Beecher Stowe described these warriors as “being
the wildest, the most dangerous, and
most untamable of the tribes.” Pratt had by all public standards, succeeded in transforming them from “wild blood thirsty savages who terrified American” re-settlements to near –white men who could read, write, farm and who quoted and preached from the bible.
• Based on his success in Florida Pratt conceived Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1879.