Transcript How scientific is social-political science??

Mainstreams of Political Science
How scientific is social-political
science ?
What is Science?
Major research dimensions in
political science
•
Traditional discourse-institutional-descriptive analysis entails simple
correlation between causes and
conseguences(Aristoteles,Platon,Machiavelli,T.Hobbes,J.Locke.GW
Hegel,Ch.Montesquieu,K.Marx,today for
• example-media) typically historical sequence,periodisation of events
• Behavioural –how, why people behave as they do politically.
Correlation: Individuals left- right values are affected by sex, social
status,income,ethnicity,age,education,profession.
•
Neo-institutional (interdistsiplinary) contains wide variety of research
methods incl. quantitative ones.
Synthesis of different science research methods like
sociology,economics,law,history, psychology,geography, philosophy,etc.
Rational Choice theory-people ought to maximize their benefits and minimize
their losses.(Cold weather in election day affects the general outcome of
elections nearly 20 %.)
The goal of any science
In contrast to any other sources of
knowledge, science uses explicit methods
that attempts to enable different people
to agree about what they know.The goal of
any science is to describe and explain- to
answer what ,why, and how
questions.There are four essential
characteristics of the scientific method:
Scientific method
1)Science entails a search for regularities in the
relationship among phenomena.
2) Science is empirical in a sense that it is
concerned with phenomena that can be
observed or measured.
3) Science is cumulative, because it tentatively
accepts previously established knowledge on a
subject as the foundation for development of
further knowledge. One can challenge existing
knowledge, but it is not necessary to reestablish
the knowledge base every time.
Scientific method
4) The method of science is testable.Its
practitioners, scientists specify the
assumptions, analytic techniques, and
interference patterns that support their
knowledge claim. They look for some
analysis or evidence that would invalidate
(falsify) the claim. Other scientists can
evaluate all aspects of the claim and can
repeat the analysis to ensure that
everyone reaches the same conclusion.
Normative political knowledge
Usually normative political knowledge combines
combines three levels of understanding1)your
descriptive knowledge of certain facts2) your
explanatory knowledge about why certain
outcomes occur, for instance the causes of
war,availability of nuclear weapons, transition 3)
your priorities among competing values(equality,
individual rights,tolerance,etc.)Social science is
non-value free.
Is this a “real”science?
Discussion started T.Kuhn in his book “ The nature of
scientific revolutions”the view posits that there is
general agreement on the four key elements that provide
organization and direction within a fully developed
science.1)central concepts, which identify and name key
phenomena(II world war,etc.2)theories,which are sets of
systematically related generalizations (concepts) that
provide explanations and predictions about the linkages
between certain concepts 3)rules of interpretations which
indicate the methods that will establish whether the
explanations and predictions posited by theory are right
or wrong.4)a list of questions or issues that are worth
solving (priorities) within the area of inquiry.
Problems
• These four elements are well developed and
widely shared within the research communities
of every natural and applied science.In contrast
social-political scientists have not agreed upon a
coherent set of concepts, theories and rules of
interpretations.There is disagreement regarding
the key issues that ought to be solved, little
consensus on what theories and generalizations
have been proven and even great difficulty in
operationalizing key concepts of power and
democracy.
T.Kuhn:”Pre-digmatic political
science”
• Political world is far too complex and unpredictable for
systematic generalizations.Politics is based on actions
and interactions of many individuals,groups,and even
countries.
• Subjectivity-The issues chosen for study and the manner
in which variables are defined ,measured and analyzed
are all powerfully influenced by the analysts social reality
,by his culture, values,religion,etc.
• Although political science has no fundamental
discoveries yet, however, “it,s necessary to see things
deeper and better than previously or
yesterday.”(M.Weber)
Taxonomy in comparative politics
Definition:Big social categories that tend to be controversial
(east-west,north-south,I world,II world,III world, IV
world,Eastern Europe,Scandinavia versus Baltic states
etc.
Human development: cumulative or non-linear by
character
S.Huntington: “The third wave”.Democratization:
The global democratic revolution is the most
significant political trend in the late 20 century.
First wave-19 century up to the 1920,sII world war, where
30 states were democratic.Reverse wave-19221943,communism in Russia, fascism in Italy and nazism
in Germany, authoritarian regimes in the Baltics were
part of this development.12 countries left.
Democratization:
• II wave-after the second world war
1945-1973: Democracy was reinstalled in the defeated and
occupied countries,decolonizationof Africa,India,etc.36
democratic government.
Reverse wave- in Latin America, 1960,s-military
regimes.The only exception was Costa Rica
• III wave1974-1991. Fall of juntas in
Portugal,Greece,Spain(Franco regime,Salazar in
Portugal)
Number of democracies has doubled, more than 90 states
(Snowball effect),nowadays 140 states are classified as
democracies.
What factors enhanced the
development of political science
• Second world war
• Emergence of welfare state.
• New social movements and nonconventional political behaviour
• Emergence of corporatism
How to start research?
1)to examine existing evidence (books, journals,
what other social scientists have published.
2)you state the issue in precise manner.
Hypothesis,assumptions.Females are less
involved in politics than males in a country,
perhaps it´s vice-versus in Scandinavia, etc.
3)Next you operationalize the concepts.This
means you specify exactly what each concept
means and how it might be measured
Applying scientific method to
politics
Defining political concepts
for instance like democracy, socialism,
dictatorship, capitalism is rather difficult.
Let,s tentatively propose that a political democracy is a
state with periodic elections in which most adult citizens
are allowed to vote in order to select among genuine
alternative candidates for public office.The probability of
voting is operationalized as the “percentage of those
eligible to vote who actually do vote on a major political
“office. However, voting behavior is a tricky one.
Individuals tend to be lazy, pretty often changing their
minds
Applying scientific method to
politics
4)You gather appropriate data, collect evidence
that is valid and reliable.
For instance, newspapers are not always reliable
distorting information.
5)Then you analyze the evidence and decide
whether, if any, interference,can be made.Here
is the point where scientist can demonstrate
his,her analytic skills by proposing something
new, turning attentions to some contradictions in
theory ,etc.
6)The final stage is to offer tentative conclusions.
R.DAHL (Yale un.)“MODERN
POLITICAL ANALYSIS” (20
century)
Political
system
democracy
Economic
system
capitalism
correlation
democracy
socialism
unusual
dictatorship
capitalism
unusual
dictatorship
socialism
usually
usually
Levels of analysis in politics
•
•
•
•
•
Individual centered
Group centered
Institution-centered
Society-centered
State-centered (Authority centered both on
local as well as on nationwide level)