Transcript Unit Two Part Three - Kenston Local Schools

Unit Two Part Three
18th Century Society and Culture
Chapters 10 and 11
Traditional Culture
Social Class
• Men and Women saw themselves as part of their
“class” it defined them in society. Not completely
static, but pretty well set. As politics and
economics change, social change will come as
well.
• Social structure had developed during Middle
Ages, During Age of Absolutism (17 c) it will
remain rigid, in 18 c it will begin to shift, huge
changes will come in 19 c
• 4 basic groups
Aristocrats
• 1-5% of population (depending on Country) Had
wealth, as well as political and social power.
Nobility only people other than royalty that might
generally have a voice in gov’t.
• Ownership of land key to $$. Primogeniture still
common (in Eng younger sons go into business, in
other areas become members of clergy or gov’t
officials)
• Labor (even business) often considered
“beneath” them- expected to live lives of
grandeur and idleness. Often exempt from Taxes
Peasants
• In western Europe free, but in East still often
serfs. Seldom moved far from where they
were born
• Some in West has small plots of land, but
most had become tenant farmers through
enclosure movement. (had to pay at least 1/3
of crop to land lord) Also, had to pay fees to
use mills, ovens, presses owned by landlord.
• Strong resentment of nobles
Towns and cities
• Very much a minority group before 1700s
(except in Netherlands and Italy)
• Had greater access to education, culture, and
trade. Wealthy townspeople might be as rich
as nobility (merchants etc…generally richest)
• Middle classes were developing a distinct
lifestyle
• Lower urban classes would be journeymen,
apprentices, servants and laborers
Clergy
• No longer a distinct social class- instead it
reflected other levels in society.
• In Catholic countries: Village priests little better
than peasants, Bishops were younger sons of
aristocrats (and also strongly resented)
• Protestant religious leaders tended to come from
middle classes- more integrated into society (had
families etc…)
• Still important parts of life- marriages, baptisms
and burials. Major source of Charity- major
network of Education
Marriage and Family
Northwestern Europe
• Nuclear family typical
(not extended) Men did
not marry until adult,
independent and
established (27 average
age)
• Households of ordinary
people fairly small, 204
kids, children live @
home until early teens,
then enter work force.
Needed legal permission
from parents to marry.
Eastern Europe
• Married much earlieroften before 20, tended
to have larger families.
• More likely to live in
extended family
situations, in part
because of serfdom, in
part b/c of different social
structure. (communal
work)
Prior to 1750
• Typical wife would give birth
to 6+ kids (there would be
even more NOT born) about
½ survive.
• In west- if you couldn’t
marry until you could afford
your own home, might have
to wait until dad died to
inherit land/business.
• 40-60% of women never
married.
• Out of wedlock birthrate
low
After 1750
• Cottage industry increased
marriage for love (didn’t
have to wait as long for
financial independence)
• Increasing illegitimacy (high
as 33%) result of rebellion
against marriage
restrictions, and increased
mobility of workers as IR
took off
Women and Family
• Most women confined to
family life. Could be
independent- but that
was rare. Kept her
parent’s house, then kept
her own.
• Like boys- often “worked
out” as a teenaccumulating $$ for
dowry. Classes differed in
types of work, but lower
classes expected to
contribute
• Domestic service most
common occupation for
girls (even girls of middle
class could become
governesses etc…)
• Greatest risk at work was
becoming a sexual victim,
if caught, or unpleasant,
could be dismissed- with
little other choice but
prostitution or thievery.
Children
• People got married- and • Poor women typically
had kids. Multiple
breast fed for 3 years
pregnancies typical- and
for nutrition and birth
even for wealthy infant
control.
mortality was high.
• Upper class women
• If lived in cities (and
didn’t breast feed their
could afford it) Children
babies, hired a “wetsent away to the
nurse”
country to be raised in
“healthier”
atmosphere.
Child Rearing
• High mortality rate made parents reluctant to
bond with children until they were nearly grown.
Upper/middle classes would “see” children once
a day (after supper, before bedtime) other than
that- mostly raised by servants
• “Spare the rod- Spoil the Child”. Children treated
as short adults with strict physical discipline to
“break” their will
• Reformation and Enlightenment begin to refocus
family attitude- but notion of “childhood” as a
happy time won’t come about until Victorian age
Infanticide
• If you had an unwanted
pregnancy (either
illegitimate or just too
poor) there was little that
could be done before
child was born.
• Statistics are unreliable,
but many children died
from “Accidents” like
overlaying (parents rolled
on them in bed)
• Others abandoned in
Foundling Hospitals
• Hospitals in major cities
like Paris/London took in
up to 500 babies a yearat least ½ of whom died.
(up to 90% in some areas)
Legalized infanticide
Education
• Formal education (actual
school) not part of life of
the masses- at least ½ still
illiterate- but literacy
increasing
• Elementary schools began
to develop- with
specialized curriculum for
different levels of
students.
• Prussia 1st country with
universal elementary
initiative 1717
• Jump in literacy in 1700s
inspired by Reformation
(read bible) in 1600s.
• By 1800 90% of Scots,
Dutch and Swiss literate
(Calvinists took bible
reading seriously)70% of
French, 50% of English,
but less than 20% of
Eastern Europeans
Work Away from Home
• In lower classes, all family members expected
to contribute- at home or outside it.
• From age 7-14 boys were apprenticed- wages
(if any) went to parents
Health and Hygiene
• Both rich and poor susceptible to tainted
water/food sources. (worst in city, most people
drank wine or beer, considered healthier than
water)
• Late 18 c efforts made to improve sanitationdrain swamps etc… but healthcare overall limited
by lack of knowledge.
• Bloodletting still a common treatment- bathing
considered dangerous. (powder and clean linen)
Smallpox
• Most important medical breakthrough of early
modern age was innoculation for smallpox
• 25% of deaths every year (around 400,000 a
year, 60 million during 1700s in Europe as a
whole) came from Smallpox.
• Lady Mary Montague introduced the Turkish
practice of inoculation (criticized) Edward
Jenner developed a reliable vaccination for
smallpox 1778
Elite vs. Popular Culture
• Aristocrats and peasants had different values,
beliefs, customs (middle class had $$, but
weren’t always welcome, which they
resented)
• Elites created a “republic of letters” and
international (French speaking) sophisticated
civilization. Needed education, wit and charm
to participate
The Grand Tour
• As culmination of
• Streetlights and public
education- a tradition of
transportation systems
travel to major cities –
created. Coffeehouses
especially to see the
provided places to
ruins of antiquity
mingle
(Greece and Rome)
• Typical to be gone 6-12
• 1st modern “tourism”
months. Men went in
industry- cities built
pairs or small groups“attractions” (plaza,
Girls escorted by
gardens, theaters,
chaperones
opera houses etc…)
Salons
• Drawing rooms of
• Madame Geoffrin’s and
wealthy women
Madame de Stael’s the
became setting for
most famous
gatherings of thinkers to • Intellect is fashionablediscuss ideas and enjoy
interesting that these
artistic performances.
gatherings of men
Birthplace of new ideas
discussing ideas were
• Most famous were in
held in homes of
Paris, but London,
wealthy women
Vienna, Berlin all had as
well
Masonic Lodges
• Another venue for cultural sharing. Fraternal
organizations dedicated to Human values
(reason, progress, toleration, reform)- but as
secret societies.
• Began in Eng- spread to continent. Members
came from a variety of social classes (that was
the trick) to discuss mutual self- improvement
• Freemasons aroused suspicion- plenty of
conspiracy theories
Learned Academies
• Originally for nobles
interested in learningthe first were “literary
institutes”, but soon
shifted to science,
politics and other
matters.
• “Commoners” began to
be admitted in 1770s
• Often began with king’s
patronage (“royal
academy of….”) came to
be centers of new
thought- amateur
interest in science,
anthropology,
archeology etc…. Againshowing importance of
intellect in this age
Journalism
• Periodicals (magazines)
began in Eng and became
popular quickly (1700, 25
published- 1780, 158)
• Daily newspapers also
began in England- London
Chronicle the 1st.
• More censored in absolutist
countries (like France,
Austria)
• Grew out of
reformation- people
had used them to
follow religious
arguments
• Often built around a
particular subjectpolitics, science etc..
Art
• France replaced Italy as
the cultural leader of
Europe.
• Baroque style came to
be seen as too showy
(moving out of age of
kings- developed
Neoclassicism: an
emphasis on clarity,
balance, and harmony
in design
• Popular in late 1700searly 1800s. Another
reflection of ideals of
Greece and Rome- a bit
more elaborate than
they had been during
Renaissance.
• Used in public buildings
and private residences
Rococo
• Another option….began in
1730s- even more highly
and frivolously decorated
(the word means
“shellwork”- took
inspiration from nature- like
seashells and flowers)
• Smaller and subtler than
Baroque, emphasized grace,
motion, asymmetry and
curvature. Pastoral rather
than heroic
• Strongly identified with
court of Louis XV and
XVI (particularly Marie
Antoinette) Wanted to
create more intimate
settings and playful
scenes
• Fragonard most famous
Rococo painter
Music
• Shift from Italy (music for church) to France
and Austria (music for kings) Baroque music
dense and heavy- Bach
• 18th cen a great age for music- the “classical”
age. Perfected art of symphony, music
concerts became popular- musicians play in
Salons
• George Handel, Franz Hayden, Wolfgang
Mozart, Frederick Chopin
Literature
• Novels became popular (Characters in a realistic
social context) often mirroring everyday problems.
Poetry gaining popularity as well
• Especially popular in France- 300 published between
1700-1730 (often sold as serials in periodicals)
• Samuel Richardson: “Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded”
1740
• Henry Fielding “Tom Jones” 1749
• Daniel Defoe “Robinson Crusoe” 1719, “Moll
Flanders” 1722
Romanticism
• The next movementbeginning at the turn of the
19th century
• Celebrating emotion and
passion.
• William Wordsworth
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
Johan Von Goethe, (Sturm
and Drang) Faust
• Emotion over reason
(rejection of reason of
science and enlightenment)
• Age of poetry, gothic novels
and pre-Raphaelite
painting. Full of tragic
heroes misunderstood by
society and allegories to
tales of middle ages (king
Arthur)
Popular Culture
• For ordinary people “culture” meant recreation- done in
groups, & in public.
• Festivals begun in middle ages- often religious- times of
release from a hard life. Carnival (primarily in Mediterranean
countries)
• Taverns- men gather to share news, play games, and do
business. Gin/Beer (Eng) Vodka (Russia)
• Booklets, Almanacs
• Storytelling, folktales, fairy tales (don’t need to be highly
literate, could be read aloud)
• Songs- often Bawdy
Religion/Churches
• Europe is still vast majority Christian- but by
this point even protestant churches seemed
involved in maintaining status quo.
• New movements grew as ideas shiftedfocusing on change and helping fellow man
Pietism
• German movement- emphasized emotional
content in Christian faith.
• Reassertion of “Priesthood of all Believers”
• Bible study- beginning of “born again”
movement (like Anabaptists, can’t join until
adult)
Quakers
• Society of Friends- founded by George Fox
(1624-1691) emphasized personal, inner
religious experience
• Services spontaneous, no leaders, gathering
houses- pacifist
Methodists
• Founded by John Wesley
(1703-1791) an Anglican
minister who had a
“transformative” experience
– convincing him others
could be saved by
“experiencing” God.
• Inner conversion- found
support in lower classes as
industrialization took off
• Concerned about
complacency in religion and
skepticism of Enlightenment
• Rejected PredestinationGod will save anyone who
wants to be saved- strong
on concept of Free Will.
Positive, full of hope and joy
(loved music)
Suppression of Jesuits
• Created during Counter- Reformation, had
been an important part of RC policy for 200
years. But annoyed absolute rulers when they
interfered in politics etc…
• Kings complained and order suppressed by
Pope in 1773 (reorganized, limited to
teaching, and reauthorized 1814)
Toleration of Minorities
• Growing acceptance of idea of multiple Christian faiths- but
not always (ex. Louis xiv revoking Edict of Nantes) Last
execution for Heresy- 1781, but didn’t mean everyone likes
each other….
• Jews are main religious minority in Europe- most (approx
3,000,000) live in Eastern Europe (esp. Poland, Lithuania,
Ukraine) 150,000 in Austria, 100,000 in Ger. States, 40,000 in
France, 10,000 in England
• Generally kept separate from society with combo of cultural
choice and law (ghettos) Pogroms- outbursts of persecution
Chapter 11: The Age of
Enlightenment
What is it?
• The Enlightenment advocated applying
principles of the Scientific Revolution to
understanding all life.
• Thinkers believed their role was to bring
progress to the world through the use of
reason. Wanted ideas to reach the public- and
have ordinary people apply critical thinking to
their own lives (don’t just accept- think)
Popularization of Science
• Believed that science
can not only unravel the
mysteries of the
universe, but everyday
problems as well
• Translate “discoveries”
into layman’s termsmake scientists
household names
• Heading towards a new
world view: Reason,
NOT Revelation, is the
key to the world.
• Secularization of society
Isaac Newton
• Incorporated
astronomy/physics of
Galileo into one
extraordinary theory that
explained the order and
design of the universe.
Reconciled seemingly
conflicting discoveries with
ideas like gravity.
• Principa Mathematica 1687all motion can be measured
with the same formulas
• Because the “laws” of the
universe are constant- no
divine power is required to
run the natural world
(foundation of deism- got
made the world and let it
go)
• Also invented Calculus (gee,
thanks Isaac)
Newtonian Synthesis
• Everything is the universe is governed by the
same set of laws – and the entire universe is
united by gravity (all bodies are attracting all
other bodies constantly) into one majestic
system.
• Revolutionary b/c even other scientists had
considers heavens and earth two separate
things- Newton brought them together
Impact of Science on
Enlightenment
• Single biggest factor in
creating the worldview
which would inspire the
enlightenment
• Characterized by….
• Spirit of
experimentation also
led to agricultural
improvements and
improvements in
sanitation etc…
• Sci/Rel still not in
“conflict”- scientists
believed they were
studying God’s creation
Reason
• Application of methods of Science to other
parts of life
• Accept nothing on faith- everything must be
examined (even Faith itself)
Social Science
• Laws of science apply to human society,
discover the forces that govern human nature
(like gravity does for the universe)
Progress
• Once you figure out how things work- you can
USE that info to create better societies and
better people. Progress can be made, social
problems solved
Spreading ideas and achievements
• Scientific writing can be dull- other thinkers
“popularized” the ideas of scientists by putting their
work in ordinary terms
• Bernard de Fontenelle “The Plurality of the World”
1686- about Newton’s ideas
• Math and Science became fashionable “hobbies”with lectures and meetings for amateurs. Resultincreasing skepticism towards “accepted” (but
unproven) viewpoints
What is the Enlightenment?
• Emergence of a secular world view for 1st time
since ancient Greece- autonomy of intellect
(completely separate from Religion) and you
USE this knowlegde/reason to make the world
a better place
• The Universe is governed by natural law- not a
supernatural being (though they believed in a
creator- deism)
Early Thinkers
They set the stage…….
Thomas Hobbes
• Leviathan 1651. Written just after Eng. Civil War and
execution of Charles I.
• 1st to define the idea of the Social Contract. We give
up our freedom to the gov’t and in return- gov’t
keeps us safe. Humans are naturally violent and
selfish- and gov’t needs to be strong to protect us
from our own nature. Agreed with absolutism, but
thought king had obligation to use powers for good
of subjects
John Locke
• “Essay Concerning
Human Understanding”
1690. Explained human
psychology in terms of
their experience.
• We are not born
condemned by original
sin (or automatically
sinful in nature)- but are
masters of our fate
– Tabula Rosa: we are born • Talks about the
“blank slates”- and
importance of our
experience (not nature)
environment- therefore
determines who we areeducation in the key to
so human nature can be
progress.
modified
Natural Rights
• Second Treatise on Government 1690. Talked about
the role of gov’t in an individual’s life. In the “state of
nature” people are free and equal, but through
civilization we have created inequality and chaos.
• We are born with natural rights (Life, Liberty and
Property) We give up freedom to the gov’t – (per
Hobbes) but do NOT abdicate those rights. Gov’t is
only legal if it rules with the consent of the governed.
• People have the right to overthrow a gov’t that does
not protect their rights
Why France?
• First thinkers were English- but the soul of the
Enlightenment will be in France- the center of
a “Republic of Letters” which transcended
national boundaries
• What made France the Center?
International Language
• Most educated people (even in other
countries) spoke French.
• Cultural center of Europe- richest and largest
population
Government
• Louis XIV may have been the “poster child” for
absolutism- but didn’t really use his power to
interfere with subject’s lives (as was common
in Eastern Euro)
• And because they WERE absolutist (had no
voice) thinkers were interested in rights etc…
in a way they might not have been if it was a
constitutional gov’t
Support for Reform
• Looking for REAL change- wanted to
understand how society worked so they could
make it better. Wanted recognition for
individual freedoms and political rights
Salons
• This is where the conversations were
happening- bringing together writers,
philosophers, artists, scientists etc… all the
people with new ideas.
• People anxious to debate- affirming the idea
that talent/intellect were more important
than noble heritage
The Philosophes
• French word for
enlightenment thinkers. Not
“philosophers” (who sought
truth) but “lovers of
wisdom” – wanted to
reform thought, society, and
government to promote
liberty. Spoke at Salons,
wrote pamphlets,
newspapers, novels etc..
• Not generally
professional thinkers
(like Locke, or Newton)
this was their passion.
• Generally really
optimistic (perhaps
overly)- and in favor of
radical change
Voltaire: Francois Marie Arouet
• 1694-1778
• Began as a playwright. Used a
careful balance between
creativity and flaunting authority
(would get him exiled from
France and Prussia in the end)
Admired English- found their
society open and free.
• Candide- famous satire on noble
priv.
• Probably least optimistic- warned
change would take tremendous
struggle
• Very sarcastic- ridiculed
those who disagreed with
him (which would earn him
powerful enemies)
• Challenged RC theologycalled for toleration for ALL
faiths
• Advocated “Enlightened
Despotism” in government.
• Believed in equality before
the law
Denis Diderot
• 1713-1784
• Editor and author of
Encyclopedia: a Rational
Dictionary of the Sciences,
and Arts and the Crafts
(took 25 years to compile)
an attempt to classify all
knowledge (disliked by
church because it
questioned doctrine)
• Central idea: knowledge is
rational- it follows the laws
of nature, it can be
understood
• Compendium of viewssome conflicting- helped
popularize the ideas of the
philosophes- teach people
to think critically and
objectively
Caesar Beccaria
• “On Crimes and Punishment” 1764
• Sought to humanize criminal law. Punishment
for crime should relate to amount of damage
done- not sin. Said it should be more about
rehabilitation (what made person commit
crime in first place)
• Opposed use of death penalty and torture.
Baron de Montesquieu
• 1689-1755
• A noble, but against absolutism and noble
privilege. “Persian Letters”- 2 despots come to
France, and ridicule it as backwards.
• “Spirit of the Laws” 1748- applied scientific
principles to gov’t, advocated separation of
powers and checks and balances.
• Shaped evolution of liberal democracy
Immanuel Kant
• 1724-1804
• Greatest German philosophe. Said science and
morality are separate- science can only
describe nature, not evaluate it as
right/wrong.
• Believe in a Moral Imperative- that is
something is wrong it is ALWAYS wrong, no
gray areas
Jean Jacques Rousseau
• 1712-1778.
• A reluctant philosophe- he said
they were part of the problem.
• His big issue was freedom (said
society was destructive to the
individual) said people should
return to simpler timescharacterized by exercise, self
reliance and independent
thought. (state of nature)
• “Emilie”- education to allow free
expression- create a “Noble
Savage”
• General Will: (from the “social
contract” 1762)- the consensus of
the majority should rule the
nation. (Democracy- like ancient
Athens, but even then all
Athenians couldn’t vote)
• Actually closer to ideas of
Romanticism (founding father of
it) than Enlightenment
Adam Smith
• Scottish. Wrote about economic rather than social
issues (this was another type of enlightenment
thinker- called Physiocrat)
• 1776 published The Wealth of Nations- in which he
defined free market capitalism- where “Invisible
Hand” manages supply/demand. “Laissez Faire”gov’t control interferes with natural laws of the
marketplace.
• Assumes econ is cyclical- will regulate its own ups
and downs
Francois Quesnay
• French Physiocrat- wanted to reform agrarian
system with Laissez Faire policy (end tariffs
and price supports) Said gov’t/noble
ownership of land was bad- peasants work it,
they know it best, but can’t produce in own
best interest.
Enlightenment And…
Religion
• Many philosophes were against est. religious
doctrine- saying it hampered scientific
discovery
• David Hume: said faith is based in superstition
rather than reason
• Philosophes discounted the concept of
original sin (which said humans were born
evil) argued that organized religion not
necessary for a good society
Deism
• Combination of religion
and reason (Voltaire a
big fan)
• God created the worldand let it go- it operates
through natural laws
rather than divine
intervention
• Existence of God
rationalized- accepted
that there still WERE
some things beyond
human understanding
• God a divine
clockmaker (the highest
tech of the day)
Toleration
• Pierre Bayle: Critical and Historical Dictionary
1697 Condemned Christian church for
persecution and fanaticism- trying to force all
people into thinking the same way. Advocated
complete tolerance (echoed by Voltaire)
• Edict of Toleration: Austria 1781. Issued by
Joseph II- 1st time gov’t recognized rights of
non-christians. (although only RC allowed to
worship publically)
Women
• Women’s role in society also debated for the
first time- but most philosophes did not
advocate equal rights. Said the “natural,
biological” differences made them inferiorboth physically and intellectually.
Salons
• Irony is that women hosted the Salons where
all these ideas were being discussed….
(though the hostess herself might be the only
woman there)
• Madame de Geoffrin
• Madame de Stael
All famous Salons
• Louise de Warens
Mary Wollstonecraft
• Often viewed as founder of feminism. Wrote
Vindication of Rights of Women in 1792
(takeoff on Declaration of the Rights of Man
1791)
• Two main points
– If kings are not to be automatically obeyed- why
must men?
– If all men are born free- why are all women born
slaves?
Politics: Liberalism
• Enlightenment inspired movements for political
action. Liberty of Individual and Equality before law
(most not so interested in democracy- yet)
• Natural rights and the social contract key features in
American and French Revolutions
• The idea is that people are interested in change (that
is what Liberalism is)- try an new idea rather than
stick with tradition (which is what Conservatism is)
Impact of the Enlightenment
• Dominance of Secular world view (which has
been growing since Renaissance)
• The reform- actual change- in this period was
modest: some religious toleration,
streamlining of legal code, access to
education, reduction of torture
• But the ideas here will all come to fulfillmentit just takes time to get there.