Transcript Cognitive Perspective

The Cognitive
Perspective
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The “Information
Processing Approach”
What is it?
• Psychological Theory concerned with explaining human
behavior by the studying the how the mind processes
information. Specifically, how the brain selects, processes,
organizes, stores, and uses data.
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Key Topics
– Key Assumptions
– Key Historical and Cultural Influences
• Reaction to Behaviorism
• Computer Model
– Key Research Methods
• Laboratory Experiments
• Case Studies
– Key Topics
• Information Processing
• Memory and Theories of Memory
• Forgetting
• Applications of Memory
– Key Studies
• Craik and Tulving (1975)
• Myers and Brewin (1994)
• Aggleton and Waskett (1999)
– Evaluation: Strengths and Weaknesses
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Key Questions
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How does the cognitive perspective differ from other
perspectives? How is it similar?
What is the difference between sensory, short term, and long
term memories?
What are two of the main theories which explain how memory
works?
What is autobiographical memory?
For what reasons do we forget?
Why is the tendency for reconstructive memories something
law enforcement officials might want to be aware of?
What are schemas and how are they important?
How can knowledge about memory be applied to issues in the
modern world?
What types of research methods are generally used by
cognitive psychologists?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of this perspective?
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Key Concepts
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Memory
Coding
Storage
Retrieval
Multi-Store Theory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Procedural Memories
Declarative Memories
Semantic Memory
Episodic Memories
Levels of Processing
Theory
Structural Processing
Phonetic Processing
Semantic Processing
Deep Processing
Serial Position Effect
Primacy Effect
Recency Effect
Autobiographical Memory
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Forgetting
Anterograde Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
Availability
Accessibility
Trace Decay
Encoding Failure
Interference
Repression
Cue-dependent forgetting
Encoding specificity
principle
Context dependent recall
State dependent recall
Leading Questions
Bias
Confirmation Bias
Stereotypes
False Memory Syndrome
Mnemonics
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Historical and
Cultural Influences
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Reaction to behavioral perspective focus on external rather
than internal processes.
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Reaction to lack of Scientific Controls of Psychodynamic
Perspective.
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Computer Model – Invention of computer gave scientists a
model to compare the mind to
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Key Assumptions
of the Perspective:
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The way to understand, explain, predict, control, measure and
describe human behavior is to study the cognitive
mechanisms of the body.
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Both humans and computers process information – so there
may be some similarities
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Research should be highly scientific and controlled.
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In order to understand human behavior, inner mental
processes such as thoughts, beliefs, and cognitive structures
must be studied.
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These inner mental processes change over time in ways which
can have profound effects on behavior.
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MEMORY
and
FORGETTING
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1.
2.
Three Processes of Memory
Two Theories of how memory works.
A.
Multistore Model
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B.
Levels of Processing Approach
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Failure of Availability
Failure of Accessibilty
Two more memory theories:
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B.
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Structural, Phonetic, Semantic
Amnesia
Autobiographical Memories
Forgetting
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B.
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Sensory, Short Term, and Long Term memory
Serial Effect
Reconstructive Memory Theory
Schema Theory
Factors which can influence memory
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1. The 3 Processes
of Memory
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Coding – how information is labeled as it enters the mind.
Different types of coding:
a. Acoustic – sounds of words
b. Semantic – meaning of words - usually associated
with LTM
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Storage – how much or for how long information is stored.
a. The capacity of LTM is possibly unlimited
b. Miller (1956) suggested STM usually holds about 7
“chunks” of info on average.
c. The better we organize data into chunks, generally
the more we can put into short term memory
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Retrieval – taking information from storage so that it can be
used - all of the problems associated with finding and
retrieving it.
a. STM retrieval is generally rapid or not at all
b. LTM retrieval is generally a longer process than
STM
c. LTM depends on finding specific retrieval cues to
be successful.
There is a possibility we never forget anything!
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2. Theories of Memory
Psychologists have not been able to “prove” how memory
works exactly, but two of the main theories are:
A. Multi-store Model
B. Levels of Processing Approach
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A. Multi-store Model
of Memory
What is it?
• Theory by Atkins and Shiffrin (1968)
• Based upon the theoretical existence of a sensory, short term,
and long term memory processes.
• They believed that information flows
1) briefly through sensory, then into
2) short term, and/or
3) long term memory structures.
Findings:
• If STM memories are not rehearsed, they are lost. In other
words, whether information is stored in STM or LTM depends
on how much it is processed by the mind.
• Each structure has different durations and capacities
• Duration and capacity is fixed in each structure: Once the
memory capacity or specific duration of time is reached,
memory is lost.
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The 3 Structures of Memory
in the Multi-store Theory
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Sensory Memory (SM)
Any auditory or visual stimulus remains unaltered in the
mind for a brief time, but is rapidly lost through decay.
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Short Term Memory (STM)
Memories which are learned quickly, but quickly forgotten;
generally in seconds or minutes.
3.
Long Term Memory (LTM)
Memories which last for several minutes, hours, days,
years, or lifetimes.
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Support for the
Existence of STM and LTM
Research on:
The “Serial Position Effect”
and
Patients with “Anterograde Amnesia.”
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Studies on the
Serial Position Effect
What is it?
• The Serial Position Effect describes the fact that in tests of
free recall, people tend to remember the first and last bits of
information more readily than information presented in the
middle.
• The Multi-store theory is able to explain the “Serial Position
Effect.”
Specifically:
• The Primacy Effect – the tendency to remember the first
information we are presented because such information is
generally transferred into LTM.
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The Recency Effect – the tendency to remember the most
recent information we are presented
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Explanation:
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FIRST: The first information brought into “empty” STM
memory has more time to be rehearsed, and is more likely to
transfer into LTM. (Primacy Effect)
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MIDDLE: Further information brought into memory has less
time for rehearsal brought into an STM which may already be
full.
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LAST: Last information brought in tends to “displace” or push
out the middle information. Also, since this info is the most
recent, it is also easier to remember. (Recency Effect)
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Studies of
Anterograde Amnesia
What is it?
• Disorder in which a person cannot place information into LTM.
• Experiences of world last only as long as STM does.
• Can often learn new procedural skills (such as learning to play
a game), but cannot make new declarative, semantic, or
episodic memories.
• (Baddeley and Warrington, 1970) - In free recall
experiments, these people show good recency effects, but
poor primacy effects
Why does it happen?
• Generally results from brain damage or illness affecting the
Hippocampus.
• (Milner et al, 1978) Damage to hippocampus appears to stop
the transference of information between STM and LTM
• Patients often remember most of LTM before accident or
illness.
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Evaluation of
The Multi-store Model
Strengths
• Still widely used by psychologists
• Provides support for Serial Position Effect and Anterograde
Amnesia
Weaknesses
• Original theory was too simplisitc. Now thought to be different
types of both STM and LTM.
• Ignores the importance of the type of information that is
brought in, and the effort or strategy subjects use when
learning.
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B. “Levels of Processing”
Theory of Memory
What is it?
• Theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972)
• Accepts the existence of STM and LTM
• However, suggests that it is what the person does with
information when it is received (how much attention is paid to
it or how deeply it is considered, that determines how long the
memory lasts.
• Info is more readily transferred to LTM with more “depth of
processing”
What are the 3 Levels of Processing?
1. Structural Level – paying attention to what the
words look like. (superficial)
2. Phonetic Level – processing the sound of the
words. (deeper processing)
3. Semantic Level - considering the meaning of
words (the deepest processing).
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More Characteristics of “Deep
Processing”
Further research in this area led to the identity more specific
characteristics of Deep Processing:
1. Elaboration (Craik and Tulving 1975)
Better cued recall for info which is well elaborated rather
than simple elaboration
2. Distinctiveness (Eysenck and Eysenck 1980)
Better recall when info is distinctive or unusual
3. Effort (Tyler et al, 1979)
More effort which has to be put forth, better recall
4. Personal Relevance (Rogers et al 1977)
Higher recall for information made relevant to learner.
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Key Research:
Craik and Tulving (1975)
Aim
Method
Results
Conclusion
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LOP can help explain:
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Why participants in a study by Morris (1981) who were
enthusiastic football fans tend to remember scores of
games presented to them more accurately than nonfootball fans.
Why participants in a study by Bower and Karlin (1974)
remembered pictures of people more accurately when they
had to judge how honest or likable than if participants were
asked to identify whether the people in the pictures were
male or female.
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Evaluation of LOP Theory
Strengths
• Good contribution to understanding the processes that take
place at the time of learning
• Provides and alternative explanation of anterograde Amnesia
(shallow processing)
• Recognizes a wide variety of memories as a result of a wide
variety of ways information is dealt with.
Weaknesses
• Not meant to fully explain memory, but to aid in research.
• Circular definition: well remembered material which has been
deeply processed and deeply processed material is that which
is well remembered.
• Many problems with defining deep processing and why it is
effective
• It describes rather than explains.
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Types of LTM
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Declarative Memories
memories which we can easily tell other people about (ones
which we can declare.)
i.e. Your name, your mother’s name, etc
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Procedural Memories
Memories of how to do things. Generally procedural
memories are easier to do than to say. Often difficult to
remember how we came to know these types of memories.
i.e. Kicking a soccer ball accurately
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Episodic Memories
Memories of things you have done or which have happened to
you.
i.e. Your first kiss.
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Semantic Memories
Memories of concepts, meanings, rules, and general
knowledge of the world.
i.e. Knowing how to introduce a friend
Knowing what it means to be “rude”
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3. Autobiographical
Memories
What are they?
Memories from people’s own lives – our personal memory.
Factors influencing what is remembered:
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How personally relevant an event is: The more important it
is to us, the more likely we will remember
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How Surprising or Emotional a event is: the more suprising
or emotional, the more likely we remember
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How much time has passed since the event occurred: The
more time passed, the more distortions which are likely
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How much is remembered: generally, the less people can
remember about an event, the older the memory is
perceived to be.
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How repetitive or unique an event is: Unique events stand
out “while repetitive ones tend to blend togther into an
indistinguishable lump.”
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Cue dependency - Forgetting of autobiographical memories
appears to be cue dependent. The reason we don’t
remember is because we probably don’t have the right
cues.
Weakness:
Research on Autobiographical memories has largely been
gained through non-laboratory methods.
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4. Forgetting
“Forgetting” assumes that something was once stored in STM
or LTM, and now either has:
A. Disappeared (failure of availability)
or
B. It is there but it can’t be brought to mind
(failure of accessibility).
Forgetting is a natural process, but is it necessary?
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A.
Failure of Availability
1. Trace Decay
Forgetting caused by the natural “decay” of neural
pathways which have been “excited” by incoming
information.
2. Encoding Failure
when information is not encoded well enough to be moved
from STM to LTM.
Ex: forgetting someone’s name who you just meet. If you
don’t rehearse it, you forget.
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Interference – forgetting due to prior or subsequent learning.
One set of information competes with another causing it to
be “overwritten” or physically lost.
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B. Failure of Accessibility
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Cue-dependent Forgetting – forgetting which comes from
the lack of an effective retrieval cue. Information is
available, but is temporarily inaccessible. Led to several
specific concepts:
a. Encoding specificity Principle
Tulving (1983) proposed that information committed to
memory is encoded with specific information from the
context in which it was learned. Therefore, cues from
the original context are necessary to remember
effectively.
b. Context Dependent Forgetting - Caused by the absence
of external environmental cues which were present at
time of learning.
Godden and Baddeley (1975) - recall of lists learned
underwater or on land was 50% more effectively
recalled in the same environment.
c. State Dependent Forgetting - Caused by the absence of
internal bodily cues that were experienced at the time
of learning.
Bower (1981) - found that participants recalled more
memories learnt when said if he tested them when
hypnotized to be in a sad mood than in a happy one.
Also, those in the sad state tended to remember
unpleasant memories, those who were happy tended to
remember mostly happy thoughts.
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2.
Repression – an defense mechanism from the
Psychoanalytic perspective in which traumatic or anxiety
provoking events are pushed from the conscious mind to
avoid displeasure.
The existence of Repression is not totally accepted. Many
cognitive psychologists do not believe it exists.
Most of the research which supports repression comes
from non-experimental case studies.
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Key Research:
Myers and Brewin (1994) Recall of early
experience and the repressive coping style
Aim
Method
Results
Conclusion
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5. Other Theories of
Memory
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Reconstructive
Schema Theory
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Reconstructive
Memory Theory
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Proposed by Bartlett (1932) - suggests that people do
not passively record memories as exact copies but
actively try and makes sense of it in terms of what they
already know.
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Information may be distorted because of what we think
could or should have occurred, what we are familiar
with, etc.
Brewer and Treyens (1981) tested memory of
objects in a room which 30 subjects waited in for 35
seconds. Objects which they had previously said
they would expect to see in office settings (stapler)
were more likely to be remembered than
unexpected objects (pair of pliers). Some subjects
even falsely remembered objects they expected to
see that were actually not there (books and pens).
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Generally based on studies of qualitative changes in
what is remembered in natural settings
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Schema Theory
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Developed in the 1970’s by Cognitive Psychologists
Suggests that our mind naturally creates “schemas” or mental
representations of the world
Helps us to remember and make sense of our surroundings
Acquired through generalized personal experience or the
taught beliefs and stereotpypes of a group or society.
We constantly try to make sense of new information we
receive by making the best fit with existing schemas.
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6. Factors Which Can
Influence Memory:
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Organization – the more organized information is, the more
likely it is to be remembered.
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Language – language can create expectations which can
distort what is remembered.
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Context – the place were learning takes place may influence
subsequent recall.
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Depth of Processing – The more a person thinks about the
information or connects it with other information the more likely
it will be remembered.
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Advantages:
• Allow us to store key meanings of new information without
having to remember precise details (unless they were
unusual)
• Saves memory resources
• Help us to understand new information (comparison,
integration, interpretation to existing information)
• Allows us to fill-in or guess missing aspects of new information
• Therefore, they make the world more coherent and predictable
Disadvantages:
• Information which does not quite fit our schemas (especially
minor details) may be ignored, forgotten, or distorted in order
to make the information fit better into our existing schemas
• Can cause inaccurate, stereotyped, and prejudiced memories.
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Real-life Applications and
Issues of Memory
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Cognitive Psychology has been applied to several
real life applications and issues important to memory
in order to better understand them:
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Eye-Witness Testimony
Leading Questions
Confirmation Bias and Stereotypes
Line ups
False Memory Syndrome
Mnemonics
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1. Eye-Witness Testimony
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Memory can be highly unreliable.
Some reasons:
– Shepherd (1974) found that cross-racial face recognition
is poor
– Harris (1978) found that 60% of participants in a study
would infer information not present in testimony based
upon their own expectations.
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Often, we unconsciously replace partial recall with
reconstructions of such memories, based upon expectations
Loftus (1983) reported that jury members tend to trust
eyewitness reports more than they do fingerprint experts.
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2. The Effects of Leading
Questions
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What is a “Leading Question?” - A question which makes
assumptions or implies answers by the way in which it is
asked.
Such questions by themselves can influence the way in which
a witness responds and therefore can ultimately distort the
accuracy of the case.
Because it such questions are important, psychologists have
taken the time to study how influential they can be.
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Loftus and Palmer (1974)
• Illustrated how the way questions are worded can influence
the way witnesses respond.
• People were showed a film of a car accident and asked the
question:
“How fast were the cars going when they ___”
• The last word being either smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or
contacted.
“Smashed” = avg of 41 mph
“Contacted” = avg of 32 mph
• The word implied a difference that had an effect on the
estimates of speed of the cars.
• IV ____________________ DV _____________________
• Research Method _________________________________
Harris (1973) found a mean difference of 26cm in participants
guesses at a picture of a basketball player when asked either:
“How tall was the basketball player”
or
“How short was the basketball player
These studies illustrate the ability for language or other
information to distort memories which have been previously
encoded and stored
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KEY RESEARCH:
Loftus et al (1978) Semantic
Integration of Verbal information
into a visual memory
Aim
Method
Results
Conclusion
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3. Confirmation Bias and
Stereotypes
Bias – a thought or belief which already exists that influences the
way we react to a situation, person, or event.
Confirmation Bias – when people distort the memory of an event
so that it conforms to their expectations rather than reality.
Stereotype – a preconceived belief or thought which negatively
influences or categorizes another person or group.
Betty K – Participants read information about a woman named
Betty K. Afterwards, participants were told she was either in a
lesbian relationship or was married. The participants told she
was a lesbian remembered information consistent with this
description. Those told she was married were more likely to
recall information about her dating guys.
MODIFY????
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4. Line-ups (Identity Parades)
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Sanders (1984) found that clothing rather than facial features
or height is more important to determining recognition.
Witnesses are more likely to pick suspects who are wearing
similar clothing to the clothes the culprit wore.
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People often assume that police would not have a line-up
unless the culprit is there. They often pick someone who most
looks like the criminal, even if the real culprit is not present.
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When witnesses are less nervous, they tend to be less
accurate.
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Improving Accuracy: Sequential line ups in which members of
the line-up are presented one at a time can reduce
inaccuracies.
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5. False Memory Syndrome
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A name given to recovered memories which have no factual
basis.
Several cases of false memories resulting in criminal
proceedings exist.
Loftus and Pickrell (1995) illustrated that it is possible to
plant false memories.
– They interviewed participant and their families regarding
past events.
– A booklet was then constructed with descriptions of three
events which actually happened to the participant, and
one that had not.
– The false memory described being lost in a shopping mall
– Participants were asked to write what they remembered
about each of the events.
– 7 of 24 participants “remembered” the false event but had
even added vivid details.
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6. Mnemonics:
What are they?
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Techniques which have been experimentally shown to
enhance memory
Several effective methods for memorizing information have
been established as a result of research by cognitive
psychologists:
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Repetition
Organization
Elaboration
Chunking
Cues
Visual Imagery
Loci System
Keyword System
Peg word System
Abbreviations
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Biology and Memory
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Memories of motor skills tend to be stored in the
Cerebellum
Memories of events and concepts tend to be stored in the
Cortex.
Certain chemicals enhance or interfere with the ability to
remember
Studies have shown that electrical stimulation of some
areas of the brain can cause vivid memories of the past
including sights, voices, shapes, colors, etc.
Hebb (1949) believed that information brought into the mind
creates a neurological memory “trace” in the neurons which
naturally would dissappear over time. Repeated firings
produce a structural or phyisical change with repeated
firings and results in LTM.
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Key Research Methods
of the Perspective
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Observations
Longitudinal Studies (such as case studies)
Experiments
“A theory is only as good as the
research upon which it is based.”
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Strengths of the
Perspective
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Highly scientific research
Useful - practical applications and implications for society.
Recognizes the changing nature of mental structures.
Shown that the link between age and behavior cannot be
fully made or understood without understanding the
changing nature of underlying mental structures.
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Weaknesses of the
Perspective
1.
2.
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4.
5.
Cognitive processes are not directly observable
Psychologists must infer the nature of cognitive processes
Emphasis on laboratory methods means that much of the
data gained may not be ecologically valid.
Criticized for being mechanistic and reductionist
Criticized for omitting emotional influences
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Possible Essays
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Evaluate the statement: “’We never forget what we learn.”
Assess any two studies from the Cognitive Perspective.
Describe at least three modern applications of the Cognitive
Perspective.
Describe one theory or model of memory.
Assess any two basic assumptions of the cognitive
perspective.
Using several relevant concepts, explain why people forget.
Explain the factors which affect memory.
Explain how memory can be enhanced.
Describe any 3 cultural or historical influences which were
important to the cognitive perspective.
To what extent is the cognitive perspective an accurate
explanation for human behavior?
Assess the methodological limitations of this perspective.
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