Transcript No Slide Title

Chapter 10
Physical and Cognitive
Development in
Middle and Late
Childhood
Physical and Cognitive
Development in Middle
and Late Childhood
Physical
Development
Cognitive
Development
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Physical
Development
Body Growth
and
Proportion
Motor
Development
Exercise
and Sports
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Health,
Illness, and
Disease
Children
with
Disabilities
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Body Growth and Proportion
• Proportional changes are among the most pronounced.
– Head and waist circumference and leg length decrease in
relation to body height.
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•
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•
Muscle mass and tone improve.
Strength doubles.
Weight gain averages 5-7 pounds a year.
Increased weight is primarily due to
increases in the size of the skeletal and muscular
systems, and the size of some organs.
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Motor Development
• Motor development becomes much smoother
and more coordinated.
• Skipping rope, swimming, bike riding, skating,
and climbing are mastered.
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Motor Development
• Increased myelination of the CNS is reflected in
the improvement of fine motor skills.
• Hands are used more adroitly as tools—
hammering, pasting, tying shoes, and fastening
clothes.
• By 10-12 years children begin to show
manipulative skills similar to the abilities of
adults.
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Exercise and Sports
• A 1997 poll indicated that only 22% of children in
grades 4-12 were physically active for 30 minutes
every day of the week.
• Only 34% attended daily P.E. classes
and 23% had no P.E.
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Participation in Sports
• Participation in sports can have both positive and
negative consequences for children.
• It’s an opportunity for exercise, healthy
competition, building self-esteem, peer relations
and friendships.
• It can produce pressure to achieve to win, physical
injuries, distractions from school, unrealistic
expectations.
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Health, Illness, and Disease
• Accidents and Injuries
• Obesity
• Cancer
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Accidents and Injuries
• The most common cause of severe injury
and death is motor vehicle accidents, either
as a pedestrian or a passenger.
• The use of seat-belts is important in
reducing the severity of such accidents.
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Accidents and Injuries
• Other serious injuries involve skateboards,
roller skates, and other sports equipment.
• Appropriate safety helmets, protective eye
and mouth shields, and protective padding
are recommended.
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Obesity
• Just over 20% of children are overweight, and
10% are obese.
• Girls are more likely than boys to be obese.
• Obesity is less common in African American than
White children during childhood, but this reverses
during adolescence.
• Obesity at age 6 results in approximately a 25%
chance for adult obesity.
• Obesity at age 12 results in approximately a 75%
chance for adult obesity.
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Consequences of Obesity in
Children
• Obesity is a risk factor for many medical and
psychological problems
• Pulmonary problems, such as sleep apnea
• Hip problems
• Tendency toward high blood pressure and elevated
cholesterol levels
• Low self-esteem and depression
• Exclusion from peer groups
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Treatment of Obesity
• Exercise is believed to be an extremely important
component of a successful weight-loss program
for overweight children.
• Many experts on childhood obesity recommend a
treatment that involves a combination of diet,
exercise, and behavior modification.
• Behavior modification programs typically teach
children to monitor their own behavior, keeping a
food diary while attempting to lose weight.
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Cancer
• Cancer is the second leading cause of death in
children 5-14 years of age.
• Currently 1 in every 330 children in the U.S.
develops cancer before the age of 19.
• The incidence of cancer in children is increasing.
• Child cancers are mainly those of the white blood
cells, brain, bone, lymph system, muscles,
kidneys, and nervous system.
• All are characterized by an uncontrolled
proliferation of abnormal cells.
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Children with Disabilities
• Who Are Children with
Disabilities?
• Learning Disabilities
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder
• Educational Issues
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Who Are Children with Disabilities?
• Approximately 10% of all children in the U.S.
receive special education or related services.
• Within this group, little more than half have a
learning disability.
• Of children with disabilities:
– 21% have speech or language impairments.
– 12% have mental retardation.
– 9% have serious emotional disturbance.
• Three times as many boys as girls are classified as
having a learning disability.
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Learning Disabilities
• Children with a learning disability:
– are of normal intelligence or above.
– have difficulties in at least one academic area and
usually several.
– have a difficulty that is not attributable to any other
diagnosed problem or disorder.
• The most common problem that characterizes
children with a learning disability involves
reading—severe impairment termed dyslexia.
• They often have difficulties in handwriting,
spelling, or composition.
• Successful intervention programs exist.
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder
• ADHD is a disability in which children
consistently show one or more of the following
characteristics over a period of time:
– inattention
– hyperactivity
– impulsivity
• The disorder occurs as much as 4-9 times as much
in boys as in girls.
• Students with ADHD have a failure rate in school
that is 2-3 times that of other students.
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Causes of ADHD
• Definitive causes of ADHD have not been found.
• Possible low levels of certain neurotransmitters
have been proposed.
• Pre- and postnatal abnormalities may be a cause.
• Environmental toxins such as lead could
contribute to ADHD.
• Heredity is considered a contributor, as 30-50%
of children with the disorder have a sibling or
parent who has it.
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Treatment of ADHD
• Many experts recommend a combination of
academic, behavioral, and medical interventions to
help ADHD students better learn and adapt.
• The intervention requires cooperation and effort
on the part of the parents, school personnel, and
health-care professionals.
• Ritalin is a controversial stimulant given to control
behavior.
• In many children, Ritalin actually slows down the
nervous system and behavior.
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Educational Issues
• Public Law 94-142 is the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act requiring that all
students with disabilities be given a free,
appropriate public education and be provided the
funding to help implement this education.
• Enacted in 1975, renamed in 1983 the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
• IDEA spells out broad mandates for services to all
children with disabilities, including evaluation and
eligibility determination, appropriate education,
and the individualized education plan (IEP) and
the least restrictive environment (LRE).
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The IEP
• IDEA requires that students with disabilities have
an individualized education plan (IEP), a written
statement that spells out a program specifically
tailored for the student with a disability.
• In general, the IEP should be:
– related to the child’s learning capacity.
– specially constructed to meet the child’s
individual needs and not merely a copy
of what is offered to other children.
– designed to provide educational benefits.
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The LRE
• Under the IDEA, a child with a disability must be
educated in the least restrictive environment, a
setting as similar as possible to the one in which
children who do not have a disability are educated.
• Inclusion - educating children with a disability in
the regular classroom.
• Mainstreaming - educating children with a
disability partially in a special education
classroom and partially in a regular classroom.
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Cognitive
Development
Piaget's Theory
Information
Processing
Intelligence
and Creativity
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Language
Development
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Piaget’s Theory
• The Theory
• Piaget and Education
• Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
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The Theory
• Piaget believed that around the age of 7, children enter the
concrete operational stage.
• Concrete operational thinking involves:
– mental operations replacing physical actions
– reversible mental actions
– coordinating several characteristics of objects
– classifying and interrelating things
– seriation
– transitivity
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Piaget and Education
• Take a constructivist approach.
• Facilitate rather than direct learning.
• Consider the child’s knowledge and level of
thinking.
• Use ongoing assessment.
• Promote the student’s intellectual health.
• Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration
and discovery.
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Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
• Contributions
• Criticisms
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Contributions of Piaget
• Piaget’s major contributions to understanding
children’s cognitive development include:
– assimilation
– accommodation
– object permanence
– egocentrism
– conservation
• His observation yielded important things to look
for in cognitive development, such as shifts in
thinking and the significance of experience.
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Criticisms of Piaget
• Estimates of children’s
competence
• Stages
• The training of children to
reason at higher levels
• Culture and education
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Information Processing
• Memory
• Critical Thinking
• Metacognition
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Memory
• Though short-term memory shows no considerable
increase after age 7, long-term memory increases
with age during middle and late childhood.
• Long-term memory depends on the learning
activities individuals engage in when learning and
remembering information.
• Control processes (strategies) are cognitive
processes that do not occur automatically but
require work and effort to improve memory.
• Attitude, motivation, health, and knowledge also
influence children’s memory.
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Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking involves grasping the deeper
meaning of ideas, keeping an open mind about
different approaches and perspectives, and
deciding for oneself what to believe or do.
• Deep understanding occurs when children are
stimulated to rethink their prior ideas.
• Some experts believe that schools spend too much
time on getting students to give a single correct
answer in an imitative way, rather than
encouraging them to expand their thinking and
become deeply engaged in meaningful thinking.
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Metacognition
• Metacognition is cognition about cognition or
knowing about knowing.
• Metamemory is knowledge about memory, and
includes general knowledge about memory and
knowledge about one’s own memory.
• As they move through elementary school, children
give more realistic evaluations of their memory
skills.
• Some experts believe the key to education is
helping students learn a rich repertoire of
strategies that result in solutions of problems.
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Intelligence and Creativity
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What Is Intelligence?
IQ
The Binet Tests
The Wechsler Scales
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind
Evaluating the Multiple Intelligence Approaches
Controversies and Issues in Intelligence
The Extremes of Intelligence
Creativity
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What Is Intelligence?
• Intelligence is verbal ability, problem-solving
skills, and the ability to adapt to and learn from
life’s everyday experiences.
• Intelligence cannot be directly measured.
• For the most part, intelligence tests have been
relied on to provide an estimate of a student’s
intelligence.
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IQ
• William Stern created the concept of
intelligence quotient (IQ).
• IQ is a person’s mental age divided by
chronological age, multiplied by 100.
• IQ = MA/CA x 100.
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The Binet Tests
• Alfred Binet developed the concept of mental age:
an individual’s level of mental development
relative to others.
• Binet’s original 1905 scale has been revised as the
Stanford-Binet tests and is administered to
individuals aged 2 years through adulthood.
• It requires both verbal and nonverbal responses.
• It assesses four content areas: verbal reasoning,
quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning,
short-term memory.
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The Wechsler Scales
• David Wechsler developed tests to assess students’
intelligence:
– The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R) for ages 4-6½
– The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) for ages 6-16.
– The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
• The Wechsler scales provide an overall IQ and
yield verbal and performance IQs.
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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
• Robert J. Sternberg developed the triarchic theory
of intelligence, which states that intelligence
comes in three forms:
– Analytical - involves the ability to analyze,
judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.
– Creative - consists of the ability to create,
design, invent, originate, and imagine.
– Practical - focuses on the ability to use, apply,
implement, and put into practice.
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Gardner’s Eight Frames of
Mind
Verbal skills
Mathematical skills
Spatial skills
Bodily-kinesthetic skills
Musical skills
Interpersonal skills
Intrapersonal skills
Naturalist skills
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Evaluating the Multiple Intelligence
Approaches
• These approaches have stimulated teachers to think
more broadly about what makes up children’s
competencies.
• They have motivated educators to develop
programs that instruct students in multiple domains.
• They have contributed to the interest in assessing
intelligence and learning in innovative ways.
• Critics say that there has yet to be a research base
established to support the theories of multiple
intelligences.
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Controversies and Issues in
Intelligence
• Ethnicity and Culture
• The Use and Misuse of
Intelligence Tests
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Ethnicity and Culture
• In the U.S., African American and Latino children
score below White children on standardized
intelligence tests.
• The consensus is that these differences are based
on environmental differences.
• Many early tests of intelligence were culturally
biased, favoring urban children over rural
children, children from middle SES families over
children from low-income families, and White
children over minority children.
• Culture-fair tests are tests of intelligence that
attempt to be free of cultural bias.
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The Use and Misuse of
Intelligence Tests
• Psychological tests are tools whose effectiveness
depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of
the user.
• They can be used for positive purposes, or they
can be badly abused.
• Some cautions about IQ:
– Scores can lead to stereotypes and expectations.
– A high IQ is not the ultimate human value.
– A single, overall IQ score is limiting.
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The Extremes of Intelligence
• Mental Retardation
• Giftedness
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Mental Retardation
• Mental retardation is a condition of limited mental
ability in which an individual has a low IQ,
usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test,
and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.
• Mental retardation can have an organic cause, or it
can be social and cultural in origin.
• About 89% of mentally retarded people are mildly
retarded (IQs of 55-70).
• About 6% are moderately retarded (IQs of 40-54).
• About 3.5% are severely retarded (IQs of 25-39).
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Giftedness
• People who are gifted have above-average
intelligence (an IQ of 120 or higher) and/or
superior talent for something.
• Characteristics of gifted children are:
– Precocity
– Marching to their own drummer
– A passion to master
• Recent studies support the conclusion that
gifted people tend to be more mature, have
fewer emotional problems, and grow up in a
positive family climate.
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Creativity
• Creativity is the ability to think about something
in novel and unusual ways and to come up with
unique solutions to problems.
• Convergent thinking produces one correct answer
and is characteristic of the kind of thinking
required on conventional intelligence tests.
• Divergent thinking produces many different
answers to the same questions and is more
characteristic of creativity.
• Most creative children are quite intelligent, the
reverse is not necessarily true.
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Strategies for Developing
Creativity
• Brainstorming
• Provide environments that stimulate
creativity
• Don’t overcontrol
• Encourage internal motivation
• Foster flexible and playful thinking
• Introduce children to creative people
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Language Development
• Vocabulary and Grammar
• Reading
• Bilingualism
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Vocabulary and Grammar
• During middle and late childhood, a change occurs
in the way children think about words.
• They become less tied to the actions and
perceptual dimensions associated with words and
more analytical in their approach to words.
• Children make similar advances in grammar.
• The elementary school child’s improvement in
logical reasoning and analytical skills helps in the
understanding of the use of comparatives and
subjectives.
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Reading
• Education and language experts continue to debate
how children should be taught to read.
• The whole-language approach stresses that
reading instruction should parallel children’s
natural language learning, and that reading
materials should be whole and meaningful.
• The basic-skills-and-phonetics approach
emphasizes that reading instruction should teach
phonetics and its basic rules for translating written
symbols into sounds, and early reading instruction
should involve simplified materials.
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Bilingualism
• As many as 10 million children in the U.S. come
from homes in which English is not the primary
language.
• Bilingual education aims to teach academic
subjects to immigrant children in their native
languages, while slowly and simultaneously
adding English instruction.
• This has been the preferred strategy of schools for
the past two decades.
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Findings on Bilingual Education
• Researchers have found that bilingualism does not
interfere with performance in either language.
• Children who are fluent in two languages perform
better on tests of attentional control, concept
formation, analytical reasoning, cognitive
flexibility, and cognitive complexity.
• Bilingual children are also more conscious of
spoken and written language structure, and are
better at noticing errors of grammar and meaning.
• Bilingual children in a number of countries have
been found to perform better on intelligence tests.
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