Transcript Logical Reasoning: - Pioneer Pacific College

Module 21
Thinking
Chapter 7, Pages 248-264
Essentials of Understanding Psychology- Sixth Edition
PSY110 Psychology
© Richard Goldman
October 25, 2006
Cognitive Psychology
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The branch of psychology that focuses on the
study of higher level mental processes, including:
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Thinking
Language
Memory
Problem Solving
Knowing
Reasoning
Judging
Decision Making
Thinking
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The manipulation of mental representations.
Representations:
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Words
Visual Images
Sounds
(or any type of information)
Mental Images: Representations of objects or
events that contain perceptions of all the
senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and
motion).
Concepts: Categorizing the World
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Concept: Categorizations (grouping) of similar:
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Objects
Events
People
Etc.
Prototype: Mental image that exemplifies a
concept.
Used to organize complex phenomena into
simpler, more useable information.
Example: A physician may use a prototype of an
ADHD child to aid in the diagnosis of a patient.
Decision Making:
Algorithms vs. Heuristics
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Algorithms
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Rules that lead to a correct solution
Slow but always generate the correct solution.
Heuristics
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Estimates or guesses that may provide the solution
Quicker but may lead to the wrong answers.
Example: Buying a rug for a dorm room.
Jared and his roommate Doug are in the store and
are trying to decide what size rug they need to buy
to cover the floor of their dorm room.
 Algorithm: Doug says “I want to measure the
area. Let’s go measure our room before we buy it.”
 Heuristic: Jared looks at a new rug and says “This
look like it will fit. Let’s buy this one.”
Example: Anagram
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What word can you
form from this
anagram?
ERET
If you tried each
possible combination
until you reached the
answer - you would be
using an algorithm.
EERT
EETR
ERET
ETRE
RETE
RTEE
REET
TEER
TERE
TREE
Example: Anagram
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What word can you form from this anagram?
LSSTNEUIAMYOUL
The answer is SIMULTANEOUSLY. Chances are
you did not try all possible solutions, as this would
be a much slower solution. Therefore you probably
used a heuristic.
Problem Solving
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Types of Problems
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Arrangement – Rearrange elements to solve problem
Inducing Structure – Identify relationship among
elements
Transformation – Changing from initial state to goal
state
Problem Solving Steps
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Preparation – Understanding Problem
Production – Creating Solutions
Judgment – Evaluating Solutions
Preparation – Develop cognitive
representation of problem
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Understand Problem
Understand Restrictions
Production – Creating Solutions
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Retrieve from memory
Trial and error
Heuristics (cognitive shortcuts)
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Means-ends Analysis – identifying steps that take
you from current state to goal state
Create and solve sub goals
Insight – Chaining together previous
experiences
Judgment - Evaluating Solutions
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Framing of the question influences
choices
Biased toward our own solutions
Functional Fixedness – only consider
ordinary use of an object
Mental Set – Tendency to use old
patterns of problem solving
Confirmation Bias – Tendency to stick
with our first choice
When flipping coins, which is the most
likely sequence?
HHHTTT
HHHHHH
TTTTTT
HTHTHT
HHTTHH
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ANSWER: They are all equally probable; each coin toss is
a separate event and each has a 50-50 chance of
occurring.
Creativity in Problem Solving
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Convergent Thinking – Responses based on
knowledge and logic.
Divergent Thinking – Unique and unusual
responses.
Cognitive Complexity – Creative people tend
to have a wide range of interest and are often
interested in abstract or philosophical
problems.
Improving Creative Thinking
“Critical thinkers are made, not born.”
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Redefine problems
Use Fractionation
Adopt a Critical
Perspective
Consider the
Opposite
Use Analogies
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Think Divergently
Take the
Perspective of
Another Person
Use Heuristics
Experiment with
Various Solutions
A murderer is condemned to death. He has to
choose between three rooms. The first is full of
raging fires, the second is full of assassins with
loaded guns, and the third is full of lions that
haven’t eaten in 3 years.
Which room is safest for him?
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ANSWER: The third. Lions that haven’t eaten
in three years are dead.
Increasing Critical Thinking
and Creativity
Redefine the problem
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Rephrase in more concrete terms
Rephrase in more abstract terms
Reevaluate the scope of all possible solutions
Use Fractionation
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Break the problem down into small parts.
Solutions for each part may lead to solution
for the whole.
Adopt a critical perspective
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Examine each element of the problem
Challenge each assumption that you make
Consider any possible exceptions
Consider the Opposite
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Try approaching from a different angle
Instead of trying to solve the problem try to
think how you would create the problem.
Example: If you were trying to protect a bank
from robbery you might approach the
problem from a robber’s perspective.
Use Analogies
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Look for solutions made by others or in
nature to the same type of problem.
Think Divergently
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Deviate from the most logical or common
paths to the solution.
Use things in ways other than what they were
originally intended.
Take the Perspective of Another Person
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How would this problem be solved by a:
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Child
Caveman
Engineer
Seamstress
Ant
Carpenter
Gardner
Etc.
Experiment with Various Solutions
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Try any possible solution
Try solutions that you do not believe will work
Evaluate (learn from) and modify your
solutions
A woman shoots her husband. Then she holds
him under water for over 10 minutes. Finally,
she hangs him. But 5 minutes later they both go
out together and enjoy a wonderful dinner
together. How can this be?
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ANSWER: The woman was a photographer. She
shot a picture of her husband, developed it, and
hung it up to dry.
There are two plastic jugs filled with
water. How could you put all of this
water into a barrel, without using the jugs
or any dividers, and still tell which water
came from which jug?
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ANSWER: Freeze them first. Take them out
of the jugs and put the ice in the barrel. You
will be able to tell which water came from
which jug.
What is black when you buy it, red
when you use it, and gray when
you throw it away?
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ANSWER: Charcoal.
Can you name three consecutive days
without using the words Monday,
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday, or Sunday?
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ANSWER: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow!
Imagine you just met a man named
Steve. Steve is very shy and
withdrawn, invariably helpful, but
with little interest in people, or in the
world of reality. A meek and tidy
soul, he has a need for order and
structure, and a passion for detail. Is
Steve more likely to be a librarian or
a salesperson?
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ANSWER: A salesperson. Statistically, there are far more
salespeople than librarians in the workforce. Therefore, although
Steve may seem to have the attributes of a librarian, the odds are far
more likely that he is a salesperson.
“I have two coins in my pocket that add
up to $.30 in value. One of the coins is
not a nickel. What is the other coin?”.
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The answer is—a nickel! One of the coins is not a
nickel, but the other one is.