Transcript Introduction to

COGNITIVE
PERSPECTIVE
Out of Sight, but Not Out of Mind
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What are subsequent areas of study on this subject?
Theoretically, how does intellect develop?
Discuss recent applications of this research.
Briefly describe the experimentation used for Piaget’s
study.
Briefly describe Piaget’s view on intellectual development?
What are the criticisms of this research?
Who is Jean Piaget?
After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR
conclusion?
“Thanks for the Memories!”
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What are subsequent areas of study on this subject?
Theoretically, how does memory develop?
Discuss recent applications of this research.
Briefly describe the experimentation used for Loftus’
experimentation.
Briefly describe Loftus’ view on memory?
What are the criticisms of this research?
Who is Elizabeth Loftus?
After reading the article, what is YOUR conclusion?
What is the importance of this research?
Learning objectives:
Vocabulary
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Concept
Cognitive schema
Deductive reasoning
Convergent thinking
Assimilation
Accommodation
Algorithm
Conservation
Egocentric thinking
Confirmation bias
Mental set
Justification of effort
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Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive ethology
Divergent thinking
Mental image
Subconscious processes
Nonconscious processes
reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Object permanence
Confirmation bias
Hindsight bias
Theory of mind
Concerned with how people
acquire, store, transform, use and
communicate information.
Nosce te Ipsum
• Cognition comes from the Latin word
cognoscere: “To Know”
• Cognitive processes refer to the processes
that images or concepts undergo to form
knowledge using perception, problem
solving, memory, language, and attention.
Three Principles of
Cognitive Psychology:
1. Human beings are information processors
and mental processes are linked to human
behavior.
2. The mind can be studies scientifically by
developing theories and using scientific
research methods.
3. Cognitive processes are influenced by
social and cultural factors.
Elements of Cognition
• Why do we think?
• To go beyond the
present
• Manipulation of
mental
representations
• Simplifying and summarizing information
aids in problem solving
Human beings are
information processors
• How do we acquire knowledge?
• Bottom up processing: our senses pull in
basic units of information.
• Our mind processes this information in a
top-down processing model to match the
basic units of information with our prior
knowledge.
Processing modeled:
Look at the pictures below… determine what they are.
Elements of Cognition
• Solutions:
Connect the dots using no more than 4 straight lines, without lifting your
pencil or pen from the paper – a line must pass through each point.
Human beings are
information processors
We think with Concept: categories
• Chihuahua
• Dalmation
• Great Dane
• Battle of Waterloo
• WWI
• Vietnam Conflict
• Pencil
• Paper
• stapler
• Anger
• Joy
• Sadness
Prototype and Propositions
• Prototype:
representative sample
• Football
• Weight lifting
• Cheerleading
• Propositions: relationships
between concepts that
express a unitary idea
Both statements below are
true and create a possible
relationship within a category
• John breeds dogs
• Pitbulls are beautiful dogs
•What is the concept?
•Which one is the “prototype”?
How we process, categorize, and
know information:
schema theory
Links and associations that we make create a complicated
network of knowledge, associations, beliefs, and
expectations called cognitive schemas.
• Perception
• Reconstructive nature of memory
• False memories
• If information is missing, the mind replaces that missing
information with something from our existing schema
which could lead to distortions.
Schema: models of the world
that represent “knowing”
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Gender schema
Educational schema
Racial schema
Cultural schema
Cognitive Schemas:
• Organize information about the world with
prior knowledge.
• Can be related to form systems
• Pattern recognition
• General knowledge rather than definitions
Elements of Cognition
• How conscious is thought?
• Subconscious - lie outside of awareness but can
be brought into consciousness
processes
when necessary
-typing, driving, reading
• Nonconscious
processes
- lie outside of awareness and NOT
available to conscious awareness
- intuition & insight
*Conscious processes needed for deliberate choices
*Much thinking conscious, but still mindless
(we act from habit – without analyzing)
Elements of Cognition
• Olny srmat poelpe can slvoe tihs.
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty
uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The
phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid,
aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde
Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the
ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng
is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit
pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can
sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae
the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by
istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh?
yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was
ipmorantt!
Elements of Cognition
• Reasoning cont’d
Connect the dots using no more than 4 straight lines, without lifting your
pencil or pen from the paper – a line must pass through each point.
Elements of Cognition
• Reasoning & creativity
• Reasoning - operating on information in
order to reach conclusions
• Formal reasoning
- information needed for drawing a conclusion or
reach a solution is specified clearly and there is a
single right (or best) answer
- algorithm (recipe) following procedures or steps
Deductive Reasoning: I am standing outside getting wet and
the weather man said it was supposed to rain; therefore, it
must be raining.
Inductive Reasoning: There are 100 dogs in the kennel. All of
the dogs in the kennel have fleas; therefore all dogs have fleas.
Elements of Cognition
• Reasoning cont’d
• Informal reasoning
- there may be NO clearly correct solution
Ie. abortion
• Heuristic (“rule of thumb”)
• Dialectic (comparing & evaluating
opposing points of view) ie. juries
• Creative thinking
- Creativity involves going beyond present knowledge
and habit to produce new solutions
-Mental sets – using the same strategies that worked
in the past
• Convergent thinking = aimed at finding a single correct
answer
• Divergent thinking = explores unconventional
alternatives in problem solving
• Creativity associated with:
•nonconformity, curiosity, persistence
•Georges de Mestral
MEMORY
• Reconstructing the Past
• Memory
• Refers to the capacity to retain and retrieve information
• Refers to the structures that account for this capacity
Memory confers competence
and a sense of identity
“Of all the things I’ve lost…I miss my mind the most!”
MEMORY
• What do we REALLY remember?
• Do we remember things that never happened?
• Do we forget traumatic events that did happen?
• Are memory malfunctions the exception to the
rule, or are they the norm?
• What is dementia?
• What is amnesia?
• If memory is not always reliable, how can we
hope to know the story of our own lives?
MEMORY
• Manufacture of memory
• Is a reconstructive process
• NOT like a video camera
• Source amnesia – inability to distinguish
what you originally experienced from what
you heard or were told
MEMORY
• Memory & the Power of Suggestion
Remember when you
dressed up as
Wonder Woman for
Halloween?
MEMORY
• The Fading Flashbulb
• Flashbulb memories: vivid recollections of unusual
events
• Not always complete or accurate
• The Conditions of Confabulation
• Confabulation:
• Confusing an event that happened to someone else with
one that happened to you
• Believing that you remember something that never
happened
• Likely when:
•You have thought about the imagined event many times
•The image contains a lot of details
•Event is easy to imagine
•You focus your emotional reactions to the event
rather than on what actually happened.
MEMORY
• Eyewitness on Trial
• Not always reliable
•Errors especially likely to occur when the suspect’s ethnicity
differs from that of the witness
•Accounts influenced by leading questions, suggestive comments &
misleading information
• Children’s Testimony
• Two extreme views about children reporting abuse
• Children always lie
• Children never lie
• Extremists on either side are wrong
• Research on children’s testimony shows:
•Accurately recollect MOST of what they observed or experienced
•Sometimes say something happened when it did not
•Can be influenced to report in a certain way
• Children’s suggestibility if influenced by:
•Age (preschoolers’ memories more vulnerable to suggestion)
•Pressure to conform to an interviewer’s expectations
MEMORY
• Memory under hypnosis
• Hypnosis
•Procedure where practitioner suggests changes in sensations,
perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behavior of the subject, who
cooperates by altering normal cognitive functioning
• Many uses in treatment of psychological and medical problems
• Does not increase the accuracy of memory
• Tendency to confuse fact and speculation increased by desire to
please hypnotist
• Boosts amount of information recalled, but also amount of errors
• Cannot be used to produce a re-experience of long-ago events
MEMORY = QUIZ
1. Memory is like (a) a wax tablet, (b) a giant file cabinet, (c) a video
recorder (d) none of these
2. Like other memories, flashbulb memories are vulnerable to distortion.
True or false
3. Which of the following confabulated memories might a person be most
inclined to accept as having really happened in the past and why? (a)
being lost in a shopping center at the age of 5, (b) taking a class in
astrophysics, (c) visiting a monastery in Tibet as a child, (d) being
bullied by another kid in the fourth grade
4. Which statement about hypnosis is correct? (a) it reduces errors in
memory, (b) it enables people to relive memories from infancy, (c) it
permits people to relive a former life, (d) it demonstrates that memories
are permanently and accurately stored in the brain.
5. Research suggests that the best way to encourage truthful testimony by
children is to (a) reassure them that their friends have had the same
experience, (b) reward them for telling you that something happened
(c) punish them if you believe they are lying, (d) try to avoid leading
questions.
MEMORY
• In Pursuit of Memory
• Measuring memory
• Explicit memory is conscious, intentional
recollection of an event or an item of
information. Measured by:
•Recall: ability to retrieve and reproduce the memory
from previously encountered material
•Recognition: ability to identify previously
encountered material.
•Recognition is superior to recall
MEMORY
• In Pursuit of Memory
• Measuring memory
• Implicit memory is unconscious retention in
memory. Evidenced by effect of previous
experience or previously encountered information
Measured by:
•Priming: method for measuring implicit memory
•Person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see
whether information affects performance
•Relearning method: method for measuring retention that
compares the time required to relearn material with time used to
initially learn material
•Rubix cube
MEMORY
• Models of Memory
• Information-processing model
- Likens the mind to a highly complex computer
•Information-processing model includes:
•Encoding: conversion of information into a form that can be
received by the brain
•Storing material over time
•Retrieving or recovering stored material
•In storage, information may be represented as
cognitive schema
•Mental networks of knowledge, beliefs or expectations
AKA: Multi-store Model of Memory
MEMORY
• Information-processing model
• Multi-Storage model
•Storage processing takes place in three systems:
Rehearsal
SENSORY
MEMORY
*large capacity
*VERY brief
retention
Forgotten
Decay
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
*limited capacity
*Brief storage
*Conscious processing
of information
Transferred
Selective
attention
Retrieval
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
*unlimited capacity
*thought to be
Permanent
*organized & indexed
Transferred/
Forgotten
Displacement Received
Encoding
Loss
(Not available)
amnesia
MEMORY
• Models of Memory
• Information-processing model cont’d
•Storage processing takes place in three systems: cont’d
•THREE-BOX MODEL OF MEMORY
memory – retains incoming sensory information for a
•1ST •Sensory
second or two, entryway of memory: Modality specific
•Visual images – remain for up to half a second in a visual
subsystem
•Pattern recognition – identification of a stimulus on the basis of
information already contained in long-term memory. Occurs
during transfer from sensory to short-term memory
MEMORY
• Models of Memory
• Information-processing model cont’d
•Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d)
•2nd
•Short-term memory – holds a limited amount of information
for a brief period. Also holds retrieved info from long-term
memory for temporary use
•Info not transferred from STM to long-term memory is lost
•STM is also known as working memory
•Estimates capacity of STM range from 2 to 20 items (we like 7)
•Chunk = meaningful unit of information, may be composed of
small units.
•Grouping items into chunks increases the capacity of STM
MEMORY
• Models of Memory
• Information-processing model cont’d
•Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d)
•3rd
•Long-term memory (LTM) – final destination, storage for up
to decades
•No practical limit to capacity of LTM
•Organization in Long-term memory
•Semantic categories
•Network models – interrelated concepts and propositions
•Way words look or sound. (Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT))
•States
•Familiarity, relevance or association with other info
MEMORY
• Models of Memory
• Information-processing model cont’d
•Storage processing takes place in three systems: (cont’d)
•Long-term memory (LTM) cont-d
•Contents of Long-term memory
•Procedural memories
•Memories for performance of actions or skills
(“knowing how”)
•Declarative memories
•Semantic memories: general knowledge including
facts, rules, concepts, propositions
•Episodic memories: personally experienced events
and the context in which they occurred
MEMORY
• Models of Memory cont’d
• From short-term to long-term
•Serial position effect
•Recall of first & last items on list
•Primacy effect: better recall for items at
beginning of list
•Recency effect: better recall for items at end of
list (most “recent” items)
Working Memory Model:
• Used the Multi-Storage model:
• Expanded: STM is several components that are
active.
• Baddeley and Hitch (1974) suggested the Schema
theory is too simplistic and the multi store model
does not address multi-tasking:
Retrieval
Recover from
memory
Encoding
Put into memory
Storage
Maintain in Memory
Schema Theory
Baddeley and Hitch proposal:
Working memory model:
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop and Store
Episodic Buffer
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Long-Term Storage Memory
Visuospatial
Sketchpad
1st Tier:
• Central executive:
– Controlling system that monitors and coordinates the
other components. (slave systems)
• Limited capacity and modality free
• Attention control
– Automatic level: habit and routines
– Supervisory attentional level: Emergency response:
instinctive behaviors (avoiding fire/car accident)
2nd Tier systems
• Phonological loop: two components: auditory senses
• Articulatory Control System (inner voice):
information received and transmitted verbally.
– Repeat phone number to yourself.
• Phonological store: holds speech-based material (inner
ear)
– Word bank when preparing to speak.
• A memory trace can only last from 1.5 to 2 seconds if not
refreshed with the articulatory control system.
• The Phonological Store can receive information from
sensory memory, LTM, and ACS.
2nd tier systems continued:
• Visuospatial sketchpad: (inner eye)
controls our visual and spatial from either
visual senses or LTM.
• Episodic buffer: temporary and passive display
of information
• (like a television or computer monitor)
• (chronology, sequencing, maps)
• works with Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial
sketchpad
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
• Dual-task technique: interference tasks
support memory model.
– Carry out a cognitive task that uses the
capacity of STM.
– Ask person to complete a second cognitive
task:
• two tasks interfere with each other impairing one
or both the tasks use same component in STM.
• No interference: separate components in STM.
Evaluation of Baddeley and
Hitch
• Theory of working memory explains the
memory process and accounts for multitasking abilities.
• Critique: Lots… the episodic buffer
component was not added to the model
until 2000. The theory is still developing
and our complete understanding of
memory is still underdeveloped.
MEMORY
• How We Remember
• Encoding
• To improve memory:
•Automatic encoding
•Effortful encoding
•Encode elaborately
•select
•Use distributed not
massed learning
•label
•associate
sessions
•rehearse
•Monitor your
•Maintenance rehearsal
learning
•Elaborative rehearsal
•Overlearn the
•Deep processing
material
• Mnemonics
MEMORY
• Why we forget
• Decay
• Replacement
• Interference
•Retroactive interference
•Proactive interference
• Cue-dependent forgetting
• State-dependent memory
• Psychogenic amnesia
•Psychodynamic = is repressed and can be retrieved
•However, traumatic events more likely to be
REMEMBERED
MEMORY
• Autobiographical Memories
• Childhood Amnesia
•Lack of sense of self
•Impoverished encoding
•Focus on the routine
•Different way of thinking about the world
• Memory & Narrative
•Narrative provide unifying themes
•Narrative rely on memory, interpretation &
imagination
•Old people remember more:
•Adolescence
•Early adulthood
•AKA reminiscence bump
Long-Term Memory
Implicit memories
(“Knowing HOW”)
Explicit memories
(“Knowing THAT”)
Episodic memories
(Personal recollections)
Semantic memories
(General knowledge)
MEMORY and EMOTION
• The hippocampus and the amygdala have an
important role in long term memory.
• LeDoux (neuroscientist) determined that
memories associated with emotional significance
(both good and bad) are better remembered.
– PTSD
– Abuse
– Marriages
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
PIAGET
• Longitudinal Case studies, naturalistic observation, in lab
COGNITIVE
• Three main contributions
 How children acquire knowledge : Children intrinsically
motivated to explore
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 Logical Flaws in thinking
 Stages of cognitive development
Mind divided into
 Schemas- mental structures which contain info indiv. has
relating to world, beliefs/expectations based on experience
 operations- rules by which world operates, operations change
as we mature, errors in children's logic due to limited
operations
Assimilation (alter existing schema)
Accommodation (new schema is formed)
Stages of cognitive development
Elements of Cognition
• THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT &
REASONING
• PIAGET’S STAGES - How children think
- Thought involves adaptation to new observations
& experiences & takes two forms
• Assimilation
- process of absorbing new information into
existing cognitive structures
• Accommodation
- process of modifying existing cognitive structures
in response to experience and new information
Elements of Cognition
• Development cont’d
• Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
1) Sensory-motor stage (birth to age 2)
involves:
- learning through concrete actions
- coordinating sensory information with bodily
movements
- attaining object permanence
2) Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)
- accelerated use of symbols and language
- mental actions are cognitively reversible
- engage only in egocentric thinking
- cannot grasp the concept of conservation
Elements of Cognition
• Development cont’d
• Piaget’s four stages cont’d
3) Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 12)
- understand conservation, reversibility, cause &
effect, identity, serial ordering
- perform some mental operations such as math
4) Formal operations stage
(ages 12 to adulthood
- abstract reasoning
- comparison & classification of ideas
- reasoning about situations they have not
experienced firsthand and future possibilities
- systematic problem solving
- logical conclusions based on premises common
to culture and experience
Elements of Cognition
• Development cont’d
• Piaget cont’d
Questions to Piaget’s theory
- stage changes are not sweeping or clear-cut
- Children can understand far more than given
credit for
- Preschoolers not as egocentric as proposed
Strengths
- proposed children think
differently than adults
- development is a process
- research supports findings
Weaknesses
- controversial ideas
- conservation tasks affected
by circumstances
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
PIAGET
Strengths
• Proposal children
think differently than
adults
• Proposed
development is a
process
• Later research
supports his findings
(Smith 1998)
Weaknesses
• Demand characteristics
• Methodological flaw
• Stages controversial idea.
• Conservation tasks
affected by circumstances
(McGarrigle and
Donaldson 1974.
Elements of Cognition
• Development cont’d
• How adults think
Reflective judgment
- questioning assumptions
- evaluating evidence
- relating evidence to theory or opinion
- considering alternative interpretations
- reaching reasonable and plausible conclusions
that can be defended
- reassessing conclusions in the face of new
information
King & Kitchner – 7 stages
- two pre-reflective stages
- three quasi-reflective stages
- two reflective stages
• Reflective judgment not usually developed
until middle or late 20’s if at all
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
VYGOTSKY
• Influenced by communist philosophy (Soviet Union)
• Sociocultural theory of development- children's cognitive
develop. is a function of their interaction with more skilled and
sophisticated partners
• ZPD- moving within zones
• Language for communication, a tool for thinking
• Similarities with Piaget: Each child is born with innate
abilities, held develop. Stages
• Differences with Piaget: stressed language more, culture and
society
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
VYGOTSKY
Strengths
Weaknesses
• Recognized imp of
• Ethnocentric
social and culture
• Exaggeration of
• Research supports
importance of culture
children learn faster
when working
together
• New theorists: tools
of diff cultures have
qualitative difference:
reduce ethnocentrism
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
BRUNER
• Rejected idea of dev. Stages
• Emphasis on form of information which affects
type of reasoning
1. Enactive Representation- based on physical
actions.
2. Iconic- pictures or mental images
3. Symbolic- numbers and language key
• Built on ZPD by introducing scaffolding/ when
teachers adjust amount and type of support to
develop sophisticated skills
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
BRUNER
Strengths
Weaknesses
• Useful ideas to be
• Abstract reasoning
applied in education
appears much later
than symbolic thought
COGNITIVE
Applications
• Important effect on education.
– Before 1960 teaching in England was mainly
influenced by behaviorism (reward, punishment)
linear learning, children passive receivers, no
importance on stages
– In 1967 with Plowden Report there is a shift to child
centered teaching: children need to be ready based on
maturity to get information. Emotions, physical, and
intellectual development is at different rates. Children
learn through discovery and in groups or through
scaffolding.
Elements of Cognition
• BARRIERS TO REASONING RATIONALLY
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Need to be right
Mental laziness
Hindsight bias
Exaggerating the improbable
Avoiding loss
Confirmation bias
Need for cognitive consistency
• Cognitive dissonance
- State of tension that occurs when a person’s
belief is incongruent with his or her behavior
COGNITIVE
What we know and what we do?
Rate your opinion of each statement using a scale of 1
to 5. 1 = strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree.
1. I feel that there is a problem with homeless in
the United States.
2. I feel that world hunger is a problem.
3. I feel that obesity is a problem in the United
States.
4. Global warming is a world-wide problem.
5. Children (all ages) today are too demanding.
6. Americans too materialistic.
COGNITIVE
Point made
State “yes” or “no” to the following questions on whether
you REGULARLY PERFORM THE ACTION. (BE HONEST)
1. Do you help the homeless?
2. Do you contribute to world hunger programs?
3. Do you work to combat obesity in the U.S.?
4. Do you work to reduce the effects of global
warming?
5. Are you demanding?
6. Are you materialistic?
Elements of Cognition
• Cognitive Dissonance cont’d
• State of tension is uncomfortable and motivates a
person to reduce it, especially:
• Justify a choice or decision freely made
• Actions violate self concept
• Justification of effort
• Overcoming Cognitive Biases
• Not equally irrational
• Biases diminish when:
• Expertise
• Serious consequences
• Understanding biases helps reduce or eliminate
them
COGNITIVE
Applications
Therapy:
• Rational- emotive therapy (rationally
examining negative thought patterns)
• stress’-inoculñation (consciously replacing
negative thoughts with positve, coping
thoughts)
COGNITIVE
Strenghts and limitations of
Cognitive Development
Strengths
• New proposals on mental
processes
• Importance of mental
structures to understand
link between age and
behavior
• Practical applications
• Usually use scientific and
objective research
Weaknesses
• Specialized and thus
limited contribution
• Neglected individual
differences in
cognitive
development
COGNITIVE
Strengths and limitations of
Cognitive Development
• Children have distinct • From psychodynamic
forms of thinking than
perspective neglects
adults
children's emotional
development
• Applied successfully
in education
• From behaviorist
perspective over
speculation of mental
processes, need to be
more scientific
COGNITIVE
Key concepts
MEMORY
• Types of Memory
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Reconstructive Memory
Autobiographical Memory
Flashbulb Memory
Declarative Memory (that)
Procedural (how to)
Episodic (personal meaning)
Semantic (general facts)
• Types of Rehearsal
– Rote
– Elaborative
Rehearsing
X, G, I, T, M, R, A,
S, D, O, L, Q, Z, P
Pg 36
Recall
Algeria
Yugoslavia
Puerto Rico
Switzerland
Madagascar
Ireland
China
Kenya
Venezuela
Cuba
Germany
Afghanistan
Canada
Panama
Pg 36
Recall
• Write as many words as you can recall
Pg 36
Recognition
Blitzen
Masher
Comet
Flasher
Grumpy
Sneezy
Dander
Cupid
Kumquat
Pixie
Blintzes
Dopy
Dancer
Prancer
Donder
Bouncer
Trixie
Vixen
Identify Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer’s
reindeer friends from this list.
Pg 36
Priming
definition
available
defer
calendar
halt
defrost
greyhound
storage
defy
comet
definitely
mechanism
generation
morning
deface
collection
retrieve
fantastic
pinnacle
degenerate
collage
XTNTUSACBSNBCX
Confusion?
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty
uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The
phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid,
aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde
Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr
the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt
tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the
rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and
you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. This
is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed
ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a
wlohe. Amzanig huh? yaeh and I awlyas
tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!