Review

• Textual evidence is the details or direct quotations from a text to support an answer.

• Example Question: • Which sentence from the passage best shows how powerful the meteorite was?

• A. “Suddenly, he heard a sharp, whining sound like the engine of a high-flying jet airplane.” • B. “Then a ball of fire roared overhead, followed by a searing gust of wind.” • • C. “The shock wave knocked David to the ground, his ears ringing” D. “A second later, he heard an explosive, hissing crash up ahead.”

• An inference is a reasonable guess. To draw an inference, you combine clues from the text and the information you already know.

• Example: • Which sentence from the passage best supports the conclusion that Jason is fascinated by the story of discovery?

• • A. “It was unbelievable, all this pushing and shoving.” B. “When there was only one left, Jason took off running with it like a dog with a prize bone.” • C. “That man had left home with almost nothing to his name, Jason thought, just like I did.” • D. “It could have been Jason Hawthorn dragging a fortune in gold off that ship.”

• Simile – A simile is when two things are directly compared because they share a common feature. The word AS or LIKE is used to compare the two words.

• Example: The dog shot out of the chute LIKE a rocket as it chased the rabbit.

• The dog isn’t a rocket, but the speed with which it runs is compared to that of a rocket.

• A metaphor also compares to things, but it does so more directly WITHOUT using “like” or “as”. • Example: • The family was an old tree with deep roots and rings to show how much it had weathered. • (The family isn’t a tree, but like a tree, it has roots that represent how a family has different members and similar ancestors.)

• An allusion is a reference to a real or fictitious person, event, place, work of art, or another work of literature within writing.

• In order for an allusion to be effective, the reader must be familiar with the original work that is being referred to.

• Example: • People hardly recognized Kayla when she arrived to the prom in a limo and wore her mother’s beautiful gown. Kayla was the Cinderella of the senior class.

• (Readers who know that Cinderella is a character who was given a magical evening know what the author means by this statement.)

• Other Examples: • “I can tell by your silly smile that you’ve been struck by Cupid’s arrow.” • “That old woman is fighting a David and Goliath court battle with the huge corporation.” • “Time to wake up, Sleeping Beauty. You have to get ready for school.”

• Tone is the reflection of an author’s attitude toward his or her subject.

• An author’s tone gives the reader an idea about how the author feels about a certain subject.

• Tone can be recognized by looking at an author’s word choice.

• “I love to swim, and I miss the community swimming pool very much. Last week, when I heard that the city closed the pool, I felt depressed. There are not that many safe activities that we kids can do during the summer. Swimming at the pool was something that my friends and I could all do and feel safe. Now all our fun times are only memories. Please reopen the community swimming pool as soon as possible so that we can stop moping around. Let me and my friends know what we can do to help raise money that the city needs for the pool.”

• In the previous passage, the author does not live that the city closed the community swimming pool. Think about how the author uses language to show ho sad he or she is about the pool being closed: • In the first sentence, the author says that he or she misses the pool and that he or she “felt depressed.” These are ways of expressing the author feels sad.

• When the author states that his or her “fun times” at the pool are “only memories” this shows that the author is sentimental and sad. • In the next sentence, the author says that the pool should be reopened so that his or her friends “can stop moping around”. This adds to the author’s sad tone by painting a gloomy picture.

• Irony is used to express the exact opposite of its literal meaning. It is the difference between what appears to be and what actually is. • There are three main types of irony: • • • Situational Irony Dramatic Irony Verbal Irony

• • • • Situational irony occurs when a reader or character expects one thing to happen, but something entirely different happens.

(In other words, it is when something unexpected (or inappropriate) happens.

Writers use situational irony to make their stories interesting or humorous. Example: A cartoon that depicts an animal trainer getting trapped in a cage while the animal guards the key to the cage. This is unexpected and a bit humorous. In realistic works of film and literature, people are civilized and free whereas animals are controlled.

• Dramatic Irony is the contrast (difference) between what a character thinks to be true and what the reader knows to be true. It occurs when the meaning intended by a character’s words or actions is opposite of the true situation. The character cannot see or understand the contrast, but the audience or reader can.

• Richard went to Ellen’s house to surprise her with a gift. “Happy birthday!” he exclaimed excitedly while he hid a bouquet of flowers behind his back. “Thank you, my friend,” Ellen said while she flipped through TV channels on her remote control. “I’m glad you didn’t get me flowers for my birthday. I don’t like flowers.” • (This is an occurrence of dramatic irony because the author tells the reader beforehand that Richard brought Ellen flowers. The reader knows that the statement “you didn’t get me flowers” is false, but Ellen believes it to be true.

• Dramatic Irony is used to show that the audience knows more than the character on stage. A character does or says something of greater importance than he or she knows. The audience, however, understands the meaning and importance of the act or speech. Dramatic irony is often used to produce suspense or humor.

• The difference in the knowledge of character and the audience can produce suspense. Generally, dramatic irony is used to create suspense in tragedies or mysteries.

• Example: In Sophocles’ play Oedipus the King, Oedipus does not know that he is the murderer that he is seeking. The characters of Creon and Jocasta do not know the reality about Oedipus either. However, the audience knows all along that Oedipus was destined to commit the murder and ends up doing it. The plot of the play and the actions of Oedipus create and build suspense.

• The difference in the knowledge of characters and the audience can produce humor as well. Dramatic irony is mostly used to create humor in comedies. • Example: In Shakespeare’s play Much

• Verbal irony is when someone says one thing but means something different. This type of irony is very similar to sarcasm.

• My friend Margie is studying for an advanced college degree. One evening, she sat across from me at the county library. “What’s that you have there?” I asked her. Margie peered at me from behind a very tall stack of books and replied, “Oh, just a little reading.” • Margie’s remark is an example of verbal irony. She doesn’t really think that her stack of books is light reading. More than likely, her tall stack of books contains very challenging information. Her intended meaning is the exact opposite of what she is saying.

• There are almost endless way two stories or passages can differ. It’s up to you to notice how.

• The following slides contain some definitions to help get you started.

• Scope – the range of observation, extent, time frame • Example: • The scope of the Star Wars Trilogy is wider than that of just Star Wars itself.

• Treatment – the manner of treating a subject in literature • Example: The treatment of the following passage is light and simple.

• I say it’s time we give our brother the whale a break, folks. Let’s stop hunting them for our amusement parks and just let them live a long prosperous life in the big ocean.

• Organization - the structure, or order, of a passage • Example: Is the passage chronological? (In order of time.) • Example: Is the passage according to highlights? (main points) • Example: Is it ordered by cause and effect?

• Story Variants – the small details in the texts which change the meaning or offer new information • Theme – the subject, topic or focus • Example: Sometimes two passages can be about completely different people or events and still share a theme. To discover this, think about what the two selections might be trying to communicate to you. What is the theme of each of the texts?

• Subjects and verbs must agree with one another in number. In the present tense, a singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb. • The following slides list common subject-verb agreement rules.

Singular verbs end in –s.

Unlike nouns, the plural form of a verb is not made by adding –s or (-es) to the ending. It’s actually the opposite. For present-tense verbs, adding the –s to the end makes it singular. If the verb is plural, there is no –s ending used.

Singular – The pilot flies the airplane.

Plural – The pilots fly the airplane.

• • Compound subjects with and take a plural verb.

A subject that is made up of two or more nouns is a compound subject. When the parts are connected by and, the subject is plural, so it takes a plural verb.

• Ex. The boy and his companion walk along the pier.

• Ex. The athlete, the agent, and the owner agree to the terms.

• Subjects with singular nouns joined by or or nor take a singular verb.

• Ex. Either the dog or the cat goes to the vet today.

• Ex. Neither the hiker nor the mountaineer needs a map.

•

Subjects with a singular noun and a plural noun joined by or or nor take the verb that agrees with the closer noun.

ex. Ted or his parents walk the dog daily.

ex. Neither the sailors nor their captain enjoys a harsh storm.

• •

Subjects are not in modifying phrases.

When the subject and the verb are separated by other words or phrases, make sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun within the phrase.

Examples:

One of the packets contains a surprise.

The people along the boardwalk watch the tourists.

The man with all the dogs walks about dizzily.

• • •

Don't let those phrases fool you.

Phrases using with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change whether a subject is singular or plural. If the subject is singular, the verb should be as well.

The young cadet, accompanied by his leader, runs to the rescue.

The sea captain, as well as his sailors, is hungry for adventure.

• • •

Nouns with a plural form but with a singular meaning take singular verbs.

Nouns such as United States, civics, mathematics, measles, and news take singular verbs.

The United States contains many people.

The news is good.

• • •

Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers,jeans, and shears take plural verbs.

These nouns may appear to have a singular meaning, but each of these things is made up of two parts.

Trousers make the man.

Tweezers are nifty tools.

• • •

Collective nouns usually take singular verbs.

A collective noun has a singular form even though it refers to a group of individuals or things. Examples include army, audience, crowd, group, team,committee, class, and family. These nouns take a singular verb when the group acts as one unit.

The team runs around the track after practice.

The committee elects new members.

• • The family goes to the park.

However, a plural verb is used when people or things within a group act separately.

The retired group have gone their separate ways.

The class disagree on which method is best.

• • •

If the subject follows the verb, the subject and verb should still agree.

When the normal subject-verb order is inverted in a sentence, the verb still agrees with the subject. For example, in sentences beginning with there orhere, the subject follows the verb. Since neither there nor here is ever the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with the noun that follows the verb.

There are clues to be found.

Here is your snack.

• • •

With words that indicate portions, look to the object of the preposition.

With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth—look at the object of the preposition (the noun following the of phrase) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb.If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

Three-fourths of the pizza has been eaten.

One-half of the pizzas were topped with pepperoni.

• Indefinite pronouns are words that replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. It is important to know which indefinite pronouns are singular, plural, or both. This will help you to know which verb to use.

• • • • • • • •

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something.

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

examples:

Each of these tests gets easier and easier.

Everybody knows who will win tonight.

Either is okay with me.

• • • • • • • •

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples: both, few, many, others, several Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs.

examples:

Both know what to expect.

Few ever fall the second time.

Many imagine only the best.

• Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns • Here are some examples: • • all, any, more, most, none, some The pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some take a singular or a plural verb depending on whether what they refer to is singular or plural.

• examples: • • • Singular Plural All of the newspaper is wet.

All of the members do as they please.

Most of the sky is clear of clouds. Most of the shirts are ruined.

•

Because a pronoun refers to a noun or takes the place of that noun, make sure that you use the correct pronoun. This way, the reader clearly understands the pronoun and its reference. The noun that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. Below are some basic rules for pronouns:

• • • • • 1.

Pronouns should agree in number.

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he has to buy a parking sticker.

(Not: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.) Remember: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc., are singular and take singular pronouns.

Everybody ought to do his best.

(Not: their best) Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.

(Not: their umbrellas)

• • 2. Pronouns should agree in voice or person.

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.).

• Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or third person.

• • When a person comes to class, he should have his homework ready.

(Not: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

• • • • • • • 3. Pronouns should refer clearly to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous. The sentences below are examples of vague and ambiguous pronoun references.

Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.

(Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?) I don't think they should show violence on TV.

(Who are "they"?) Vacation is coming soon, which is nice.

(What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?) George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work.

(What word does "this" refer to?) If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it.

(What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

•

Irony is the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning. Because of this, it depends on the perceived and real attitude of the speaker.

•

Heavy-handed irony—where a speaker or character strongly states the opposite of the truth—is called sarcasm. People sometimes use sarcasm to ridicule or mock someone or something. Sarcasm is used mostly in speech.

•

Words can do many amazing things! They can make you feel a certain way, and they can even make you laugh. You can use words to be fun and playful. Puns are a way that writers use and play with words.

• Some words have multiple meanings. Some words sound the same but have different meanings. A pun is when you play with those different meanings to be funny or clever.

• When a clock is hungry, it goes back four seconds.

Analogies

An analogy is a comparison between two pairs of words. It shows a relationship between the words that are being compared. Analogies can use different types of relationships to compare words. Review the following examples.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Part/Whole

Dallas is to Texas as Chicago is to Illinois. Peel is to banana as shell is to almond.

Item/Purpose

iPod is to play music as shovel is to dig holes. Arms is to hold as legs is to walk.

Antonym

Liquid is to solid as lumpy is to smooth. Appetizing is to tasteless as courageous is to cowardly.

Synonym

Reveal is to expose as conceal is to cover. Help is to assist as deceive is to mislead.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Characteristic

Hard is to diamond as silky is to petal. Sandy is to beach as furry is to cat.

Association

Airplane is to sky as ship is to sea. Gasoline is to automobile as sunlight is to plant.

Object/Location

Tree is to forest as dog is to kennel. Student is to school as picnic table is to park.

Cause/Effect

Necessity is to invention as virus is to illness. War is to treaty as overeating is to weight gain.

• • • • •

Denotation is the literal dictionary meaning of a word. Connotation, however, is the emotional suggestion of a word.

Words express more than just their dictionary definitions, also known asdenotation. Words can bring up pictures or stir feelings in the reader.Authors use connotation to influence their readers and support their point of view. For example, look at these two words below that have the denotation "different from the ordinary."

strange extraordinary

Which word has a positive connotation? Which one has a negative connotation? If you wanted to give a classmate a compliment on a painting she created, would you say, "Your painting is strange," or would you say, "Your painting is extraordinary"?

• Although the two words mean the same thing, strange has a negative connotation. Therefore, your classmate may not take strange as a compliment. Below are more examples of positive and negative connotation: • • • • Negative: Positive: Kate was an immature woman who giggled a lot.

Kate was a youthful woman who giggled a lot.

Negative: Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a haughty father.

Positive: Mr. Lambert tells everyone that his son is the mayor of Avalon. He is a proud father.