Transcript METHODS OF TEACHING
I. Traditional Teaching strategies
Lecturing Discussion Questioning Using audio-visuals
II. Activity based strategies
Cooperative learning Simulations Problem based learning Self-learning modules
III. Computer teaching strategies
Computer-assisted instructions Internet Virtual reality
IV. Distance learning
Interactive television Classes via internet
V. Teaching psychomotor skills
Approaches Assessment of pscyhomotor skills learning
VI. Clinical Teaching
Purpose of clinical laboratory Models of clinical teaching Preparation of clinical instruction Conducting a clinical laboratory research
I. TRADITIONAL
1 Lecturing 2. Discussion 3. Questioning 4. Using Audio-visual
1. LECTURING
TYPES OF LECTURES
1. TRADITIONAL ORAL ESSAY
The teacher is the orator and ONLY speaker Expositions done on topic – inspirational or information 2. PARTICIPATORY LECTURE > Begins w/ brainstorming from what students read
3. LECTURE W/ UNCOMPLETED HANDOUTS
Resembles traditional oral essay but w/ handouts (blank spaces)
4. FEEDBACK LECTURE
> Consists of mini-lectures interspaced w/ 10 minute small group discussions
5. MEDIATED LECTURE –
films, slides or Web based images + traditional lecture uses media such as
PURPOSES OF LECTURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic and sets the stage of learning Stimulates learner’s interest Helps to integrate and synthesize a large body of knowledge For clarification of difficult parts (arrythmia, acid-base balances) To advance knowledge when textbooks are not available
ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING 1.
2.
3.
4.
It is economical. Great deal of information – shared.
Supplies and textbooks become true to life ‘theater’ Teacher serves as model ‘creative mind at work’ students see a Helps students develop their listening abilities
DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING 1.
2.
3.
4.
Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge Focuses on the TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus on PS, DM, analytical thinking or transfer of learning results in SURFACE learning Does not meet student’s individual learning needs Student’s have little attention time span (15 minutes)
ORGANIZING LECTURES • • • Take time to plan for the objective of a lecture Make an outline HEIRARCHICAL/CLASSICAL LECTURE Ex. Research Design
• Ex.
Research Design I. Why we need different research design II. Research Design: A. Research (clinical trials) > Quasi-experimental > Pre-experimental B. Correlation > Ex-post facto > Restrospective III. Validity and Reliability of Design
DELIVERING THE LECTURE Plan your delivery Rehearse Consciously think of the delivery to maximize effectiveness
2. DISCUSSIONS
TYPES OF DISCUSSIONS
1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS
Announced topic Reading, watching movie – done in advance
2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS
Spontaneous
PURPOSES & ADVANTAGES 1.
2.
3.
4.
Learns problem solving method (groups) Opportunity to apply principles, concepts & theories Clarifies information & concepts Assists to evaluate beliefs/positions (professional, societal or ethical issues) > change in attitudes & values
DISADVANTAGES 1.
2.
3.
Takes a lot of time One person/few participants (monopolies) Gathering of uninformed opinions
DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES
1.
Make expectations clear.
‘Students know exactly what they have to do for discussion’ Ex. Chapter to read, watch a video 2. Set ground rules. > Limitations (e.g. time, no. of speakers, interruptions during speech)
3. Arrange physical space. Circle sitting arrangement 4. Plan a discussion starter. Ask participants to come up with opening questions Study questions – handed out prior to meeting
5. Facilitate, do not discuss. Refrain from talking. Watch group progress. Keep everyone engage in discussions.
6. Encourage quiet members to
participate.
Make eye contact and smile.
Give direct, simple questions: “Mary, what do you think?”
7. Don’t allow monopolies. Eye contact.
Be blunt when needed.. “We’ve been hearing a lot fro Sarah. Now, let us hear of the rest of you think.” 8. Direct the discussion among group
members.
> Leaders facilitate.
9. Keep the discussion on track. “We seem to have strayed a little fro our topic. Let’s pick up on the last topic that Lot was talking about.” 10. Clarify when confusion reigns. > Recording may help the group. Let them learn the act of clear self-expression.
11. Tolerate some silence. Silence gives everyone a chance to think.
12. Summarize when appropriate.
3. QUESTIONING
Can be a teaching strategy Ask questions higher order thinking
FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS
1.
Places the learners in an active role
Simple recall Helps students analyze concepts Evaluate worth of ideas Speculate “if”
2. Assesses baseline knowledge
retention
3. Helps review content
– enlightens gray areas
4. Motivates students
Stimulates thinking & curiosity
5. Guides learner’s thought process
LEVELS OF QUESTIONS
1.
A.
According to WINK classification CONVERGENT Qs
specific, usually short & unexpected answers PURPOSE -- recall and integrate information Ex. What happens to the bronchioles when a client has pneumonia versus an asthma attack?
B. DIVERGENT Qs
Generates new ideas, draws implications, formulates a new perspective Ex. What might happen if you relocate an elderly person with dementia to another type of residence where he or she is presently living?
2. According to BARDEN A. LOWER-ORDER QUESTIONS
Recall information, read or memorize
B. HIGHER-ORDER QUESTIONS
> Requires comprehension and critical thinking
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1. FACTUAL QUESTIONS
Requires simple recall questions Assess learner’s understanding To check if students are listening
2. PROBING QUESTIONS
Seeks further explanation Ex. “Can you explain that?”
3. MCQs
Tests recall or used to begin a discussion
4. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
All questions that request learners to construct an answer Ex. “When shall you use clean versus sterile dressing technique?”
5. DISCUSSION-STIMULATING Qs
Uses various questions to promote the topic Ex. “Do you agree with John’s position?”
6. QUESTIONS THAT GUIDE PS
Guides learners through problem solving thinking Ex. “What information do you need to have before we can solve this problem?”
7. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Stimulates thinking Guides learners into asking some of their own questions
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
Supportive teachers promote questioning
1. Prepare some questions ahead of time
Match with objectives
2. State questions clearly and specifically
> Ex. “Can you give me an example of how respnodeat superior can be practiced?”
3. Tolerate some silence.
4. Listen carefully to responses.
Don’t interrupt.
5. Use the “beam, force, build” technique.
BEAM – send Q to the class FORCE – call one student at a time BUILD – redirect the question to other students
6. Provide feedback.
Allow a few seconds of silence and ask, “Can anyone add to the answer?”
7. Handle wrong answers carefully.
“I am sorry Edward but it’s not quite it.” “Yvette, you are correct in saying that ____, but that is not the best way to go.”
STIMULATING LEARNERS TO ASK QUESTIONS
Learners should be rewarded for asking good questions.
Thinking is driven not by answers by good questioning .
HOW TO ENGAGE?
Thank or praise the student for asking questions.
Talk to the whole class not only the questioner. This keeps the whole class / group involved.
4. USING VISUAL AIDS
Can enhance teaching Can add interest to the classroom
ISSUES Correct choice?
Available?
Effective?
FACTORS TO CONSIDER: SELECTING MEDIA
1. Learning objectives Opt for variety
2. Availability of materials / technical assistance 3. Level, ability & number of students
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUALS 1.
HANDOUTS
Printed materials – communicate facts, figures, concepts Saves a lot of time for information
2. CHALKBOARDS/ WHITEBOARDS
Useful for mathematical problems
3. OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHP)
Saves time, helps organize and illustrates content Costly
4. SLIDES
> Used to show pictures, project diagrams, charts and word concepts
ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES:
Affordable Easy to store Easy to update/ recognize
DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDES:
Costly projector bulbs – don’t last long
5. VIDEO TAPES
In-house filming, video-clips Used during: 1) role playing; 2) communication; 3) counseling skills
ADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES:
Provides personal touch Standardized exposure – in spite of distance Used at learner’s own pacing
DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES
Costly Communication is one way – learner’s become passive
SUMMARY: INTERACTIVE LEARNING
Combine variety of techniques Change tactics every 15 to 20 minutes to recapture student’s interest
II. ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES
3.
4.
1.
Cooperative learning 2.
Simulations Problem based learning Self-learning modules
STRENGTH: Students are involved in creating and storing up knowledge for themselves
1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Small groups of learners together toward achieving shared learning goal work
Learners are aware that they are responsible not only for their own learning but also for that of the others in the group.
TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS
A. FORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP
Done in traditional class / distance learning groups Individual or group accountability Most useful in group setting
B. INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP
Can be used in any setting Helps the members to understand and clarify misconceptions as well as to share experiences
C. BASE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP
surveys/focus groups Applied easily to new staff orientation or preceptor programs
ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING Promotes critical thinking – varied positions discussions --? Enhances social skill.
Helps address learning needs & learning styles Members learn to function as a team.
DISADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING > Does not cover all content/ topics in syllabus
2. SIMULATIONS
Controlled representations of reality Exercises that learners engage in to learn in the real world
PURPOSES & USES OF SIMULATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Enhances DM & PS skills Enhances interaction abilities Helps student learn psychomotor skills in a safe and controlled setting Chance to apply theories & principles in practice Achieves learning objectives – communication skills
6. Ensures attitudinal change Helps discover factors affecting people & situations (exercise, game, role-playing) 7. Helps in mastery of skills 8. Helps evaluate learning (simulation
tests)
ROLE OF EDUCATOR IN SIMULATION LEARNING
1.
2.
3.
Planner – read carefully, assign reading Facilitator – introduce activity, moderator Debriefer – summarize what happened, let learners explain what they did and why, point out principles and theories applied
TYPES OF SIMULATIONS
1. SIMULATION EXERCISE
Focuses on process learning Ex. Earthquake drills, fire drills
2. SIMULATION GAMES
> Focuses on CONTENT / PROCESS learning
TYPES --
SIMULATION GAMES A. CONTENT LEARNING
Focuses on teaching / reinforcing factual information (ex. Crosswords, word games, bingo gaes)
B. PROCESS LEARNING
> Emphasizes problem solving & application of information (ex. Sim City)
ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES Teaches facts & application of information Stimulates learning – makes learning fun Helps to evaluate learning Increases interaction among learners
DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES 1.
2.
3.
Waste of time Unprofessional Teachers dislike competition which games promote
3. ROLE PLAYING
Form of drama – spontaneous acting out of roles (interaction) Lasts for 3 to 5 minutes (illustrates one aspect of human relationship) Expression of non-verbal and verbal behavior, response patterns and implementation of principles
4. CASE STUDIES
> An analysis of an incident or situation on which characteristics and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems need to resolved or solved
1.
Steps to follow in case studies: Develop objectives
– What do you want learners to learn?
2.
3.
Select a situation
– Choose a topic & a scenario that fits the objectives & concept you want to apply.
Develop the characters.
4.
5.
Develop the discussion questions.
Lead the group discussion.
Note: There is NO ONE RIGHT ANSWER to a case. Many problems are so complex that they have a variety of resolutions rather than a solution.
3. PROBLEM BASED LEARNING
Involves confronting students w/ real life situations – enhances CT & DM
POINTS IN PBL!
SMALL GROUPS ANALYZE THE CASE IDENTIFY THEIR OWN NEEDS FOR INFORMATION SOLVE PROBLEMS.
OUTPUT Students will become GOOD PROBLEM SOLVERS in their future work Students become LIFE LONG LEARNERS
DIFFERENCES
PBL
> CONDUCTED IN SMALL GROUPS > STUDENTS HAVE LITTLE BACKGROUNDS KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER
CASE STUDIES
> USED BY INDIVIDUALS/GRO UPS > STUDENTS HVE MOST OF THE BACKGROUND LEARNING THEORY TO APPLY TO THE CASE
Example of PBL A small community hospital is confronted with a severe nursing shortage. They are considering a change in the nursing delivery system to a model that involves cross training of personnel and increased use of assistive personnel. Rumors about a change began to circulate around the hospital and many staff seem unhappy.
I.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Identified issues by the group NURSING SHORTAGES How often do they occur?
How severe do they get?
What causes them?
What past solutions have been tried and do they work?
a.
II. NURSING CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM What is this one called?
b.
c.
Is it being used anywhere?
How would it work?
d.
e.
What might cross-training involve?
Are there published job descriptions for assistive personnel?
D.
A.
Also known as SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING MODULES B.
SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULES C.
SELF-LEARNING PACKETS INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES
4. SELF-LEARNING MODULES
DEFINITION OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES A self-contained unit or package of study materials for use by an individual Audience where this WORKS BEST: Adult learners
Principles in handling adult learners: 1.
2.
3.
Adults are self-motivated to learn (relevant) Adult’s prior experience is a resource for further learning.
Adults are problem focused and readily learn material they can use to solve problems.
COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction and instructions Behavioral objectives Pretest Learning activity Self-evaluation Pretest
TIPS
1. INTRODUCTION & INSTRUCTIONS
Topic for module – single topic Ex. Problem of elimination – divide this into urinary elimination and intestinal elimination
2. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Expected of the learner Objectives – over-all objectives / specific
3. PRETEST
Optional Pretest – diagnostic test / assesses prerequisite knowledge helps evaluate which sections of the module to skip and which ones need to be studied in depth
4. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Most creative portion Designed to help meet objectives Must appeal to people – diff. learning styles Ex. Attending short lectures, speeches, demo Watching a video or slide Using a computer program
4. SELF-EVALUATION TOOLS
Assesses how the students are achieving the objectives
5. POSTTEST
A self quiz (MCQ or short answer questions) Retake is okay Determines mastery
DEVELOPING A MODULE Takes time (weeks/months) Begin with the body (behavioral objectives, pretest, learning activity, self-evaluation, posttest) Last to write – introduction & instructions PILOT TESTING – have one or two people work at the module for feedback (e.g. unclear objectives etc)
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES Very flexible – do it at your own pacing, done independently Individualized approach – helps students Sparks interest in teaching – creativity Standardized Reduces travel time Reduces costs
DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES Miss interactions with people May lead to further procastination – lack of structures and deadlines Promotes dishonesty Takes many hours to design and test
IV. COMPUTER TEACHING STRATEGIES
2.
1.
Computer Aided Instruction Computer Managed Instruction 3.
Internet
1. COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION
LEVELS OF Computer Aided Instruction
1. Drill and Practice
Recognition and application of information Ex. Drugs names and actions
2. Tutorials
Useful teaching material at the rule/concept level Forces teachers from learning some basic material
3. Games
Game mode can teach
4. Simulation
Provides off real world experiences Provides chances to learn how to solve clinical problems
5. Multimedia presentations
Also called hypermedia Older form: Interactive videodisc (IVD) program
EVALUATING SOFTWARE: CRITERIA 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Accuracy – Up to date?
Easy to use – computer friendly?
Design –Interactive?
Appearance – Graphics? Animation & sound?
Feedback – rationale?
Cost-effectiveness – price? Discounts?
2. COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION
Any system of record keeping Use of authoring systems – pre-developed software packages that guide the educator t process of development of CAI
3. THE INTERNET
> A mammoth complex of computer connections across continents, connecting many millions of computers
1.
EMAIL (electronic)
Greater collaboration between teachers vs. students and between students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation and for post-discharge follow-up EX. LIST SERVS – a group of people who have similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest in a type of discussion groups
2. NEWS GROUPS
Discussions groups of people with same interest Messages appear in general mailbox Ex. Sci.med.nursing – group discussing all kinds of nursing issues (needs a news render softward) Also used for online support groups Ex. Groups for caregivers of Alzheimer’s disease
3. World Wide Web
A collection of “documents” found on Web pages A place to find specialized knowledge and multimedia presentations Ex. MEDLINE – for National Library of Medicine
Criteria to choose WWW site
1.
Purpose – audience?
2.
3.
Currency Credibility 4.
5.
Content accuracy Design
ADVANTAGES IN HOSPITAL USE Provides home-based care support for the chronically ill Tool for patient care management – part of hospital information system Provides patient teaching Supports mastery learning
> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses becomes automatic) > Provides instant feedback > Develops cognitive residues (skills in researching skills in managing information) > Promotes interactivity, institutional consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and cost-effectiveness (savings)
1.
DISADVANTAGES
High-cost software initial outlay for hardware and 2.
Negative effect communication personal and professional