Transcript Chapter 1
Thinking, Language and Intelligence Definition-Cognition is mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge. ***Cognitive abilities are key to intelligence. Definition-Thinking is the manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions. ***Involves mental images and concepts. Question-does anyone have problems going to sleep because of thinking too much before bedtime? Mental Image and a Concept Definition-Mental image is a representation of objects or events that are not present-not limited to visual images. Mental image of taste of lemon. Definition-Concept is a mental category of objects or ideas based on shared properties. Such as food or birds. Definition-Formal concept— mental category formed by learning rules. ***shape of a square. Definition-Natural concept— mental category formed by everyday experience. ◦ ***Question: vehicle (name them) Definition-Formal concept—follows rigid rules, not usually intuitive (A polygon is… or a triangle is…) Definition-Natural concept—results from everyday experience (Name some mammals…) Definition-The most typical instance of a particular concept. ◦ Examples: Fruit-apple, banana or orange. Some poor prototypes might be olive or tomato. ◦ What are prototypes of a vehicle? ◦ What are prototypes of a bird? Definition-Individual instance of a concept or category, held in memory. ◦ We compare a new object to previously stored exemplars of that concept. Example-if the concept is vehicle and the new item was boat, we would compare this to all previous memories of vehicles, such as cars, ships, airplanes and trucks. Definition-Trial & error is attempting different solutions and eliminating those do not work. ***Example would be trying different types of screwdrivers on screws until finding the correct fit. Definition-Algorithm is a problem solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution. ***Math formulas are examples of algorithms. Definition-Heuristic is a problem solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions. ***Example is breaking down an assignment into sub-goals, like the parts of a paper. Definition-Insight is the sudden realization of how a problem can be solved. Definition-Intuition is coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved. ***Do you believe in women’s intuition? Definition-Functional fixedness is the tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual way. ***Question-what other uses are there for a screwdriver? Definition-Availability heuristic is judging the probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event. Example: Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV. People over-estimate plane crashes Definition-Representative heuristic is estimating an event by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event. Definition-Language is a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements. ◦ The purpose of language is to communicate in a meaningful way that can be understood by others. ◦ Baby Sign Language 10 min. Animals clearly communicate with each other, but is that language? Some primates that have been trained demonstrate the same level of language comprehension as that of an average 2-year-old child Non-primates can also acquire some language abilities, i.e., dolphins, parrots PARROT AND INTELLIGENCE. Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment Alfred Binet-developed procedures to ID kids that needed special help in school. Made first intelligence test. Thurman developed the IQ or intelligence quotient. IQ-derived by dividing the individual’s mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)-used more widely now than Stanford-Binet test and modeled after Binet’s test. Achievement test-designed to measure skill in a particular area. Aptitude test-designed to assess a person’s capacity to benefit from education or training. Valid—ability to measure what the test is intended to measure Reliable—ability to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions Standardized—administered to large groups of people under uniform conditions to establish norms. Question: Are these IQ test valid for minorities such as native Americans? Analytic-mental processes in solving problems. Example: Rubics cube. Creative-using past experiences, knowledge and skills to cope with new situations. Practical-ability to adapt to the environment and example would be “street smarts.” Mensa Testing (2 min.) Are differences between people due to environmental or genetic differences? Misunderstanding the question ◦ “Is a person’s intelligence due more to genes or to environment?” ◦ both genes & intelligence crucial for any trait Heritability ◦ degree to which variation in trait stems from genetic, rather than environmental, differences among individuals Environment ◦ degree to which variation is due to environmental rather than genetic differences To enhance your creativity ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Creativity as a goal Reinforce creative behavior Engage in problem finding Acquire relevant knowledge Try different approaches Exert effort and expect setbacks Lifespan Development Chapter #9 What shapes the way we change over time? Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ biological development social development cognitive/perceptual development personality development What is role of heredity vs. environment in determining psychological makeup? ◦ Is IQ inherited or determined by early environment? ◦ Is there a ‘criminal’ gene? ◦ Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically determined? These are some of our greatest societal debates Mistake to pose as ‘either/or’ questions Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes Chromosomes are long twisted strands of DNA DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and carries instructions Genes are the basic unit of heredity; single unit of DNA on the chromosome Conception—when a sperm penetrates the ovum Zygote—a fertilized egg Germinal period—first two weeks after conception Embryonic period—weeks three through eight after conception Fetal period—two months after conception until birth Nutrition Anxiety Mother’s general health Maternal age Teratogens—any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses) Rooting—turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek Sucking—sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation Babinski—fanning and curling toes when foot is stroked Intense emotional bond between infant and caregiver Mary Ainsworth-attachment Easy—adaptable, positive mood, regular habits Slow to warm up—low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations Difficult—intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently Average—unable to classify (1/3 of all children) Securely attached—explores the room when mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns Avoidantly attached—a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and acts coldly to her Anxious resistant attachment—a form of insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU Learning, Reasoning, and Language Development over the Life Span MONTH 2 4 10 12 24 24+ Speech Characteristic Cooing vowel sounds Babbling consonant/vowel Babbling native language sounds One-word stage Two-word stage Sentences http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 4zPHAhj_Cio Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930’s Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world” These “understandings” are in the form of structures he called schemas Biological in belief that there are innate drives to develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism) Divided life span into eight psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative Infants must rely on others for care Consistent and dependable caregiving and meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust Children are discovering their own independence Those given the opportunity to experience independence will gain a sense of autonomy Children that are overly restrained or punished harshly will develop shame and doubt Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority Developing a sense of who one is and where one is going in life Successful resolution leads to positive identity Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity Time for sharing oneself with another person Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation Caring for others in family, friends, and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete Genetics and lifestyle combine to determine course of physical changes Social development involves marriage and transition to parenthood Paths of adult social development are varied and include diversity of lifestyles Old age as a time of poor health, inactivity, and decline is a myth. Activity theory of aging—life satisfaction is highest when people maintain level of activity they had in earlier years. In general, anxiety about dying tends to decrease in late adulthood Kubler-Ross stages of dying ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Denial Anger Bargain Depression Acceptance Stages of grief