Transcript THE GROUNDED THEORY - Near East University

Theories were confirmed by data
collection
So what did this mean?
• No new theories were emerging
• All theories were under the bias of
previous research (2 - 200 yrs)
This all changed …
This all changed when two men
changed the world of researching
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Anselm Strauss and Barney Glaser
They realized it would make more sense to collect
information before making conclusions. This was called the
Grounded Theory
Due to this, people equate Qualitative Research with the
Grounded Theory
“Empirical statements can be made during Grounded Theory
research as knowledge is founded in data” (Johnson and
Christenson, 2000)
GT looks at a particular situation and tries to understand
what is going on. This process is called Inductive Reasoning.
What is Inductive Reasoning?
• The researcher goes into the field for an extended period
of time.
• Evidence is usually gathered from;
• Interviews
• Observations
An example for Inductive Reasoning:
90% of humans are right-handed.
Joe is a human.
Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is
90%. (probability is employed)
Steps to follow:
• Open coding
• Axial coding
• Selective coding
‘Open coding is the process of breaking down the
data into separate units of meaning (Goulding,
1999). It takes place at the beginning of a study.
The main purposes of open coding are to
conceptualise and label data. Open coding starts
the process of categorising many individual
phenomena. (Brown, Stevenson, Troiano &
Schneider, 2002).’
What specific problems needed immediate action in your
organization?
• There are leadership problems.
• There is a lack of attention to
individual needs.
• Decisions are often based on
inaccurate information.
• We need a better cleaning
service for the office.
• Our office furniture is dated
and needs replacing.
• We need more computers.
• There is favoritism and
preferential treatment of staff.
• There is not enough space for
everyone.
Open coding: Transfer into codes
Management Issues
• leadership problems
• lack of attention to individual
needs
• favoritism and preferential
treatment of staff
• decisions based on inaccurate
information
Physical Environment
• need better cleaning service for
the office
• office furniture is dated and
needs replacing
• need more computers
• not enough space for everyone.
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Non- Hierarchical
Adults taking a break
from work
Hierarchical
Adults taking a break
from work
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take a holiday,
go out for a walk,
read a book,
watch TV,
wander round the garden,
go for a drink with friends,
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take a holiday,
go out for a walk,
read a book,
watch TV,
wander round the garden,
go for a drink with friends,
• work friends
• family friends
• best friend
Subcodes
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Coding is like a pyramid. Open coding is the
base of the pyramid and through systematic
analysis and constant comparison of data a
relationship between the data would be found.
Integrate codes around the categories to find the
major themes. Strauss & Corbin (1990) believed
that axial coding is valuable. However, Glaser
(1978) believed that axial coding ‘restricts the
inductive or grounded, nature of theory
building’.
Grounded theorists emphasize causal relationships, and fit
things into a basic frame of generic relationships. The frame
consists of the following elements:
Element
Description
Phenomenon
The central category about the phenomenon
Causal conditions Events or variables that influence the phenomenon
Context
Conditions or variables (such as values and beliefs) in
which the phenomenon is taking place; difficult to
distinguish between causal conditions intervening
conditions.
Intervening
conditions
Narrow and broad conditions that influence the
phenomenon and strategies
Action strategies
Activities or actions that result from the central
phenomenon
Consequences
The outcomes of the strategies , intended and
unintended
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“Pain relief is a major problem when you have
arthritis. Sometimes, the pain is worse than other
times, but when it gets really bad, whew! It hurts
so bad, you don't want to get out of bed. You
don't feel like doing anything. Any relief you get
from drugs that you take is only temporary or
partial.”
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Selective coding is the process of choosing one category to
be the core category, and relating all other categories to
that category. The essential idea is to develop a single
storyline around which all everything else is draped.
Now that the core category and main concern are
recognised; open coding stops and selective coding –
coding only for the core category and related categories –
begins.
The Data Collection Stage:
Selective coding starts
• Assigning values to
variables from data
• Modification of structure
based on data
• Identification of the core
category
• Generation of theory
• Validation of theory with
data
The Data Analysis Stage:
Selective coding continues
Grounding the theory
• Core theme specified
• Emergence of the theory
• Production of narrative
• Presentation of theory
• Validation of theory with
data
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Memos
• Memoing - making notes about any theoretical
hypotheses that arise from the coding.
• Memos - the use of memos allows for the
construction of theories from the various
categories and properties that have emerged
from the data as a result of the coding process,
and also allows for the identification of links
between the various themes/categories. They
are sorted to an order which allows the theory to
be communicated clearly.
Points for Memos
• Memos accumulate as written ideas or records
about concepts and their relationships.
• Memos may differ substantially in style and
manner.
• They are notes by the researcher to
herself/himself about some hypothesis regarding
a category or property and especially
relationships between categories.
• Memos are contributing substantially to the
qualitative research process and its credibility.
Types of Memoing
There are three types of ‘memoing’:
1) Field Notes
2) Code Notes
3) Theoretical Notes
Example for Field Notes
9/15/88 Field Note
• You asked me to tell you about my experience with pain in childbirth. It's been quite a
few years since I've had a baby. The funny thing about pain, whatever its source, is
that once it's over, you kind of bury it deep in your subconscious somewhere. You can
say that it was awful or not so bad, but this expression is filtered through a haze. You
can't really feel it anywhere, you just have images of what you think it was like. Do
you know what I mean?
• Childbirth is weird. You kind of dread it because you hear so much about the pain of
labor, on the other hand you look forward to it because you're tired of carrying the
child and anxious to see it. The pain is seen as the only way of getting there so you
know you have to go through it. You just hope that it won't be too bad. Or that they
will give you something if it is. The pain is expected, you think about it, dread it,
prepare for it by going to classes and learning how to control and tolerate it. In the
beginning it's not too bad, toward the end though, it kind of overwhelms you. The
force just kind of takes you over. But you do have moments of rest in between. And
you know it is going to end, as soon as that baby comes out. And they can give you
something to make it hurt less. I was lucky. I had short labors. So I didn't need any
kind of medication. I just used my breathing and relaxing exercises. But I can see that
if it goes on for hours and hours how you would get tired and need something.
Example for Code Notes
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10/10/89 Code Note
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Analysis pertains to fieldnote Code #45, p.2, dated 9/15/88. PAIN, PAIN MANAGEMENT CONDITIONS, ACTION/INTERACTION STRATEGIES,
CONSEQUENCES OR MANAGING THE PAIN OF CHILDBIRTH
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We are talking here about a particular type of pain event-that associated with childbirth. This association gives the pain experience its
specific properties or location along the dimensional continua. The pain of childbirth is expected (degree of expectancy), can be controlled
(degree of controllability) grows more intense as the labor progresses (degree of intensity also denotes that there is phasing), has a known
beginning, onset of labor, and an end, delivery of the child (course of trajectory), and it is intermittent with periods of no pain in between
(degree of continuity). Oddly enough, the pain of childbirth has another quality or characteristic that is quite strange and difficult to express.
Pain is* part of a labor process, labor of course serving an end-the end of pregnancy, the delivery of the awaited child. Hmm. How do I
describe this property? The pain itself is not purposeful, but associated with a purposeful activity-labor. (**** I'll note this though I'm not
yet sure what to do with this. It doesn't necessarily mean acceptance (though it might to some people), or tolerance, but perhaps it gives
the pain a certain degree of predictability? This still doesn't quite capture this phenomenon.)
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These specific properties of childbirth pain create the context in which the management of that pain takes place from the women's
perspective.
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From this field note I can come up with the following potential relationships. Under conditions, where the pain (childbirth) is known
beforehand, thus one can prepare; when it is intermittent rather than continuous; when its intensity varies over the course from mild at the
beginning to more intense later; when labor is fairly short or at least follows a predictable course; and there are known techniques for
controlling its intensity and these can be learned or negotiated for. Then, one can take action to control the intensity of the pain during
labor through pain management techniques such as the use of relaxation and breathing techniques, pain medication, or anesthesia (caudal,
pericervical). The consequences or outcomes of the use of these management techniques may not be absolute control but control of
sufficient degree to get one through the labor.
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One may enter labor with some predefined sense of what management techniques one is likely to use, such as breathing and relaxation
techniques, however if the pain management context changes due to contingency such as labor becoming prolonged due to complications,
then one may have to alter that predefined plan of management and use supplements or alternatives to those original techniques.
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Other potential categories, properties to come out of this field note to be explored in further memos are:
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pain consciousness or memory-this seems acute at first but dulls with time. Phases of pain trajectory-this bears examining. Predictability of
the pain and how this acts as a condition for management.
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This field note suggests but does not address: What about the timing and amount of medication, anesthesia? What are their effects,
potential risks?
Example for Theoretical Notes
Theoretical Note.
Strauss and Corbin 1990. pp. 216-7.
AS/JC 7-22-88 (Telephone)
************IMPORTANT MEMO: ROUTINE/NOVEL
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I posed the issue, long ago observed, that nurses encountered typical problems --- often costly of time and effort and sentiment --- but do
not act to change institutional rules or procedures to prevent. Rather they go on with their institutionalized-routine ways of doing work.
(Problematic dying patients for instance, or as in pain book). Rather they typify this patient as like one(s) they have had before. But
afterward there is no institutional change. These I have thought for a long time are due to the way organizations get work done, their
priorities, and perhaps structural strains that precipitate recurrent semicrises. But here is a much better and detailed set of answers.
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When work processes break down, then there is a change of procedure.
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If they don't change procedures, it's because the work associated with the problem is not of high priority. The nurses are SO BUSY doing the
high priority work, that they don't have time and effort to do anything else. They will, in fact, if the problem (like a problem patient) gets bad
enough call in specialists-social work- ers, chaplains, psychiatrists-because their own work has to go on. Or they will ignore the patient;
perhaps making the problem worse, but...
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If the work affected by the breakdown of work process is of high priority (like affect its efficiency or patient's safety), then they have to
reflect on how to prevent this from occurring again.
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If the change is easily done, then it is done through interactional processes: negotiation, persuasion, even some coercion.
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If the change will be difficult organizationally, this essentially means a lot of additional work must be done but it must be done --- that is:
figuring out what's to be done, planning decision making, persuading, negotiating, finding new resources, acting to raise motivation,
additional supervising when the new rou- tines are instituted, etc. And of course, an additional drain on the total articulation process until
everything is acting smoothly again.
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So, what we are saying is that THESE ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR AND MECHANISMS THROUGH WHICH ACTION IS INSTITUTED TO REPLACE
ROUTINES WITH NEW INSTITUTIONALIZED PROCEDURES. Notice: we have to look more closely at the meaning of routine procedures. At the
lowest level, it means how tasks are done. But this can be done by staff agreement as well as by administrative rules.
Sorting
• In the next step memos are sorted, which is the key to
formulate the theory for presentation to others. Sorting puts
fractured data back together. During sorting lots of new ideas
emerge, which in turn are recorded in new memos giving the
memo-on-memos phenomenon. Sorting memos generates
theory that explains the main action in the studied area. A
theory written from unsorted memos may be rich in ideas but
the connection between concepts is weak.
Writing/Process
• Writing up the sorted memo piles follows after sorting, and at
this stage the theory is close to the written GT product. The
different categories are now related to each other and the
core variable. The theoretical density should be dosed so
concepts are mixed with description in words, tables, or
figures to optimize readability. In the later rewriting the
relevant literature is woven in to put the theory in a scholarly
context. Finally, the GT is edited for style and language and
eventually submitted for publication.
Anselm Strauss
Strauss is more interested in;
• Validation criteria,
• Systematic approach.
Literature Review:
• If a literature review is done safely before data
collection and theory creation, it will encourage
theoretical sensitivity.
Barney Glaser
GT emphasizes:
• induction or emergence,
• individual researcher’s creativity,
• within a clear frame of stages
Literature review
• should not be done
until you have finished collecting all
data /evidence and have drawn conclusions.
Understanding the GT
Topic: Why are students afraid of speaking in classroom
activities?
You are not suggesting it’s a specific reason (as in all other
theories).
You are not assuming and trying to prove it is something
specific.
You are open to all theories
• So, you need to observe the classroom and/or students
and/or teachers in detail.
• You need to carry out interviews with students and/or
teachers.
Understanding the GT
• You need to analyze (compare) all your findings
while or after you have finished coding.
• Then you do a literature review (in order to
compare your findings with other research).
• Then, you put forward your theory, hypothesis
(with no influence of any other research done
before you).
How valid is this kind of research?
• If we are not basing the research on other research, how can
we trust the findings?
• There is, in fact, a way to validate data in GT.
• Triangulation !
Example: How does divorce affect children?
(no assumptions are being made, so we are not trying to prove anything –
we are open to all theories)
Normally;
• You observe and interview 100 participants ;
• Do the coding;
• Do the literature review;
• Develop a theory.
TRIANGULATON 1 – collecting data from different sources
mother
Participants: 20 children /
mothers / fathers
child
father
The data collection is not only done by observing and
interviewing the children, but in order to obtain some
validation, the mothers and fathers are also observed
and interviewed.
TRIANGULATION 2 – analyzing data
researcher 1
Participants: 20 children of
divorced parents
children
me
researcher 2
In this situation, the applier of the GT is having 2
or more of his/her colleagues carry out the same
research. Then all the data is collected and
compared.
A combination
• You can go even further and do Triangulation 1 and 2
for more validation
Participants: 20 children /
mothers / fathers
mother
child
mother
father
me
child
mother
father
researcher 1
child
father
researcher 2
Advantages of using GT
• Systematic and structured
• Greater detail
• Accurate
• Evidence provided
• Interplay between data collection and analysis
• Researcher is an insider
Disadvantages
• Cumbersome
• Lots of time and effort
• Unimportant information
• Ethical approval
Application for teachers
“understanding more and more about how people
learn is empowering for the profession of teaching,
and will enhance your own development,”
Kervin , L., Vialle, W., Herrington, J., & Okley, T.,
(2006)
“studying your own classroom, and continuously
applying the methods you believe will enhance
student leaning, is empowering for every learner in
the class.”
Kervin et al (2006).
References
• Johnson, B., & Christenson, L. (2000). Educational Research: Quantitative and qualitative
approaches. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.
• Kervin, L., Vialle, W., Herrington, J. & Okely, T. (2006). Research for Education. (1st Ed.).
Australia: Cengage Learning.
• Lichtman, M. (2006). Qualitative Research in Education: A User’s Guide. USA, California:
Saga Publications, Inc.
• Rhine, J. (2009). What is Grounded Theory? In Grounded Theory Institute. Retrieved on 15Oct-11 from
• http://www.grounded theory.com/what-is-gt.asp
• The Grounded Theory. Retrieved on 12-Nov-11 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded _theory
• Cottrell. R.R., McKenzie .J.F. (2011). Health promotion & education research methods: using
the five-chapter thesis & dissertation Model. Jones and Bartlett Publishers.LLC
• http://www.learningdomain.com/Chapter8.Coding.pdf Retrieved on 24/11/11
• Introduction to Grounded Theory http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm
Retrieved on 24/11/11
• An Introduction to Grounded Theory
• http://homepages.feis.herts.ac.uk/~comqtb/Grounded_Theory_intro.htm Retrieved on
24/11/11
• http://www.iier.org.au/iier16/moghaddam.html Retrieved on 24/11/11
Background and foreground pictures from: Google images