Transcript Chapter Two - Black Hawk College

Chapter 2
The Science of
Life-Span
Development
The S cience of
Life-S pan D evelopment
Theories of
D evelopment
R esearch
M ethods
R esearch
Journals
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R esearch
C hallenges
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As researchers
formulate a problem to
study, they often draw
on theories and
develop hypotheses.
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Definition of Theory
• A theory is an
interrelated, coherent
set of ideas that helps
to explain and to make
predictions.
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Definition of
Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a
specific assumption or
prediction that can be
tested to determine its
accuracy.
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Th eo ries o f
D evelo p men t
P sych o an alytic
E thological
Th eo ries
Theory
C o gn itive
E cological
Th eo ries
Theory
B eh avio ral an d
An E clectic
S o cial C o gn itive
Th eo ries
Theoretical
O rientation
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Psychoanalytic
Theories
• Behavior is primarily
unconscious— beyond
awareness.
• Behavior is heavily colored by
emotion.
• Behavior is merely a surface
characteristic with symbolic
meaning.
• Early experiences with parents
extensively shape behavior.
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Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
• Medical doctor specializing in
neurology
• Developed ideas about
psychoanalytic theory from
work with mental patients
• Considered problems to be the
result of experiences early in
life
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Freud’s Three
Structures of
Personality
• Id
• Ego
• Superego
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The Id
• Totally unconscious: has
no contact with reality
• Consists of instincts: our
reservoir of psychic
energy
• Has no morality
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The Ego
• Deals with the demands
of reality
• Called the “executive
branch” of personality:
uses reasoning to make
decisions
• Has no morality
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The Superego
• The moral branch of
personality
• Takes into account
whether something is
right or wrong
• Our “conscience”
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Psychosexual
Development
• Five stages
• Each stage focuses on a
part of the body for
experiencing pleasure.
• How conflicts between
sources of pleasure are
resolved determines adult
personality.
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Definition of
Erogenous Zone
• Erogenous zones are
parts of the body that
have especially strong
pleasure-giving
qualities at particular
stages of development.
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The Five Stages of
Psychosexual
Development
• The Oral Stage (Birth to 18
months)
• The Anal Stage (18 months to 3
years)
• The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
• The Latent Stage (6 years to
puberty)
• The Genital
Stage
(Puberty
on)
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The Oral Stage
• Pleasure centers
around the mouth.
• Chewing, sucking,
biting are sources of
pleasure.
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The Anal Stage
• Pleasure centers
around the anus.
• Eliminative functions
are sources of
pleasure.
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The Phallic Stage
• Pleasure focuses on
the genitals.
• Self-manipulation is a
source of pleasure.
• Oedipus Complex
appears.
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Definition of the
Oedipus Complex
• The Oedipus Complex is
Freud’s term for the young
child’s development of an
intense desire to replace the
same-sex parent and enjoy
the affections of the
opposite-sex parent.
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Resolution of the
Oedipus Complex
• Children recognize that their
same-sex parent might punish
them for their incestuous
wishes.
• To reduce this conflict, the child
identifies with the same-sex
parent, striving to be like him or
her.
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The Latent Stage
• The child represses all interest
in sexuality.
• The child develops social and
intellectual skills.
• Energy is channeled into
emotionally safe areas.
• The child forgets the highly
stressful conflicts of the phallic
stage.
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The Genital Stage
• This is a time of
sexual reawakening.
• The source of sexual
pleasure comes from
someone outside the
family.
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When conflict is
not resolved:
Individuals may
develop a
fixation
Definition of
Fixation
• A fixation occurs when
the individual remains
locked in an earlier
developmental stage
because needs are
under- or overgratified.
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Examples of Fixations
• Oral - Due to a parent weaning too early, as an
adult the individual seeks out oral gratification
through smoking, drinking, gum chewing.
• Anal - Due to a parent being too strict with
potty training, as an adult the individual is
excessively neat and orderly (known as “Anal
Retentive”).
• Phallic - Due to a parent punishing the child
for masturbating, as an adult the individual
seeks out pornography.
• Genital - Due to a parent smothering a child
with too much attention, as an adult the
individual has difficulty in romantic
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relationshipsBlack
due
toCollege
being extremely “needy.”
Contemporary View
of Freud’s Theory
• Unconscious thought remains
central theme
• Conscious thought plays larger
role
• Less emphasis on sexual
instincts
• Greater emphasis on cultural
experiences
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Erik Erikson (19021994)
• Recognized Freud’s
contributions
• Believed Freud misjudged
some important dimensions
of human development
• Developed the Psychosocial
Theory of Development
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The Psychosocial
Theory of
Development
• The primary motivation for human
behavior is social and reflects a
desire to affiliate with other people.
• Eight stages of development unfold
throughout the entire life span.
• Each stage consists of a unique
developmental task that confronts
individuals with a crisis that must be
faced.
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The Psychosocial
Theory of
Development
• Crises are not catastrophes but
rather turning points of
increased vulnerability and
enhanced potential.
• The more an individual resolves
the crises successfully, the
healthier development will be.
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Stages of
Psychosocial
Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
IntegrityBlack
vs.Hawk
Despair
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Trust vs. Mistrust
(First Year)
• A sense of trust requires a
feeling of physical comfort and
a minimal amount of fear and
apprehension about the future.
• Trust in infancy sets the stage
for a lifelong expectation that
the world will be a good and
pleasant place.
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Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt (Second
Year)
• After gaining trust in their caregivers,
infants begin to discover that their
behavior is their own.
• They start to assert their sense of
independence or autonomy.
• They realize their will.
• If infants are restrained too much or
punished too harshly, they are likely to
develop a sense of shame and doubt.
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Initiative vs. Guilt
(Preschool Years)
• As preschool children encounter a
widening social world, they are
challenged more than when they were
infants, and active, purposeful behavior
is needed to cope with these
challenges.
• Children are asked to assume
responsibility for their bodies, behavior,
toys, and pets.
• Guilt may arise if the child is
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irresponsible
and made to feel anxious
.
Industry vs. Inferiority
(Elementary School
Years)
• As children move into middle and late
childhood, they direct their energy
toward mastering knowledge and
intellectual skills.
• The danger during this time is the
development of a sense of inferiority—
feeling incompetent and unproductive.
• Erikson believes that teachers have a
special responsibility for children’s
development of industry.
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Identity vs. Identity
Confusion
(Adolescence)
• Individuals are faced with finding out who
they are, what they are all about, and where
they are going in life.
• Adolescents are confronted with many new
roles and adult statuses.
• If the adolescent explores roles in a healthy
manner and arrives at a positive path in life,
then positive identity will be achieved.
• If an identity is pushed on the adolescent by
parents, if the adolescent does not
adequately explore many roles, then identity
confusion reigns.
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Early Adulthood)
• Individuals face the developmental
task of forming intimate relationships
with others.
• Intimacy is defined as finding oneself
yet losing oneself in another.
• Intimacy is achieved through the
formation of healthy friendships and
an intimate relationship with another
individual.
• Isolation results from failure to
achieve the
Black above.
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Generativity vs.
Stagnation (Middle
Adulthood)
• A chief concern is to assist the
younger generation in
developing and leading useful
lives (generativity).
• The feeling of having done
nothing to help the next
generation is stagnation.
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Integrity vs. Despair
(Late Adulthood)
• This involves reflecting on the past
and either piecing together a positive
review or concluding that one’s life
has not been well spent.
• Integrity is achieved through
reflecting on a past deemed
worthwhile.
• If the older adult resolved many of the
earlier stages negatively, looking back
will lead to doubt or gloom (despair).
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Contributions of
Psychoanalytic Theories
• Early experiences play an important
part in development.
• Family relationships are a central
aspect of development.
• Personality can be better understood if
it is examined developmentally.
• The mind is not all conscious;
unconscious aspects of the mind need
to be considered.
• Changes take place in the adulthood as
well as the childhood years (Erikson).
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Criticisms of
Psychoanalytic
Theories
• The main concepts have been
difficult to test scientifically.
• Much of the data used to support
these theories come from
individuals’ reconstruction of the
past, often the distant past, and are
of unknown accuracy.
• The sexual underpinnings of
development are given too much
importance (especially by Freud).
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Criticisms of
Psychoanalytic
Theories (cont’d)
• The unconscious mind is given
too much credit for influencing
development.
• Psychoanalytic theories present
an image of humans that is too
negative (especially Freud).
• Psychoanalytic theories are
culture- and gender-biased.
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Cognitive Theories
• Piaget’s cognitive
development theory
• Vygotsky’s sociocultural
cognitive theory
• The information-processing
approach
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Jean Piaget (18961980)
• Swiss psychologist
• Observed his own children
to develop theory of
cognitive development
• Changed how we think
about the development of
children’s minds
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Piaget’s Cognitive
Development
Theory
• Children actively construct
their understanding of the
world.
• Children progress through four
stages of cognitive
development.
• Two processes underlie
development: assimilation and
accommodation.
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Assimilation
• Incorporating new
information into their
existing knowledge
Accommodation
• Adapting one’s existing
knowledge to new
information
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Piaget’s Four
Stages of Cognitive
Development
• Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs.)
• Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs.)
• Concrete Operational Stage (711 yrs.)
• Formal Operational Stage (11
and up)
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The Sensorimotor
Stage
• Infants construct an
understanding of the world by
coordinating sensory experiences
with physical, motor actions.
• At the beginning, newborns are
limited to reflexive patterns.
• By the end, 2-year-olds are
beginning to operate with primitive
symbols.
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The Preoperational
Stage
• Children begin to represent
the world with words,
images, and drawings.
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Definition of
Operations
• Internalized mental
actions that allow
children to do mentally
what they previously
did physically
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The Concrete
Operational Stage
• Children can perform mental
operations.
• Logical reasoning replaces
intuitive thought, as long as
reasoning can be applied to
concrete examples.
• Algebra is too abstract for this
stage.
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The Formal
Operational Stage
• Individuals move beyond
concrete experiences and think
in abstract, more logical terms.
• Problem solving is more
systematic and involves
hypotheses.
• Adolescents develop images of
ideal circumstances.
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Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Cognitive
Theory
• Shares Piaget’s view that
children actively construct their
knowledge.
• Emphasizes developmental
analysis, the role of language,
and social relations.
• Like Piaget, Vygotsky’s ideas
were not introduced in America
until the
1960s.
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Vygotsky’s 3 Basic
Claims about Children’s
Development
• The child’s cognitive skills can be
understood only when they are
developmentally analyzed and
interpreted.
• Cognitive skills are mediated by
words, language, and forms of
discourse.
• Cognitive skills have their origins in
social relations and are embedded
in a sociocultural backdrop.
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The InformationProcessing Approach
• Emphasizes that individuals
manipulate, monitor, and strategize
about information.
• Central are the processes of
memory and thinking.
• Individuals develop a gradually
increasing capacity for processing
information.
• This enables the acquisition of
increasingly complex knowledge
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and skills.
Contributions of the
Cognitive Theories
• They present a positive view of
development, emphasizing individuals’
conscious thinking.
• They emphasize the individual’s active
construction of understanding.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories
underscore the importance of examining
developmental changes in children’s
thinking.
• The information-processing approach
offers detailed descriptions of cognitive
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processes. Black Hawk College
Criticisms of the
Cognitive Theories
• There is skepticism about the pureness
of Piaget’s stages.
• They do not give adequate attention to
individual variations in cognitive
development.
• Information processing doesn’t provide
adequate description of developmental
changes in cognition.
• Psychoanalytic theorists argue that the
cognitive theories do not give enough
credit to unconscious
thought.
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Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Theories
• These theories believe that
scientifically we can only study
what can be directly observed and
measured.
• They also believe that development
is observable behavior that can be
learned through experience with
the environment.
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Classical Conditioning
• In the early 1900s, Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov
discovered the phenomenon
in which a neutral stimulus
acquires the ability to
produce a behavioral
response originally produced
by another stimulus.
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Operant
Conditioning
• B.F. Skinner demonstrated that the
consequences of a behavior
produce changes in the probability
of the behavior occurring again.
• Consequences can be either
rewards (increasing the likelihood
of behavior recurrence), or
punishment (decreasing this
chance).
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Social Cognitive
Theory
• Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel
believe that cognitive processes
are important mediators of
environment-behavior connections.
• Learning occurs through observing
what others do, as individuals
cognitively represent what they see
and adopt the behavior themselves.
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Contributions of
Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Theories
• They emphasize the importance of
scientific research.
• They focus on the environmental
determinants of behavior.
• They underscore the importance
of observational learning
(Bandura).
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Criticisms of Behavioral
and Social Cognitive
Theories
• Pavlov and Skinner put too little
emphasis on cognition.
• They put too much emphasis on
environmental determinants.
• They give inadequate attention to
developmental changes.
• They are too mechanical and give
inadequate consideration to the
spontaneity and creativity of
humans.
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Ethological Theory
• Behavior is strongly influenced by
biology.
• Behavior is tied to evolution.
• Behavior is characterized by critical
periods.
• European zoologist Konrad Lorenz
(1903-1989) identified imprinting.
• John Bowlby theorizes about
attachment.
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Definition of Critical
Period
• A fixed time period
very early in
development during
which certain
behaviors optimally
emerge
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Definition of Imprinting
• The rapid, innate
learning within a limited
critical period of time
that involves attachment
to the first moving
object seen
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Attachment
• A concept based on principles of
ethological theory.
• Attachment to a caregiver over the
first year of life has important
consequences:
– Positive and secure attachment
results in positive development.
– Negative and insecure attachment
results in problematic development.
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Contributions of
Ethological Theory
• It has an increased focus on
the biological and
evolutionary basis of
development.
• It uses careful observations
in naturalistic settings.
• It emphasizes critical
periods of development.
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Criticisms of
Ethological Theory
• The critical period concept may be
too rigid.
• It places too strong an emphasis on
biological foundations.
• It gives inadequate attention to
cognition.
• It has been better at generating
research with animals than with
humans.
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Ecological Theory
• Developed by Urie
Bronfenbrenner.
• Consists of 5 environmental
systems:
– The Microsystem
– The Mesosystem
– The Exosystem
– The Macrosystem
– The Chronosystem
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The Microsystem
• The setting in which the individual
lives.
• Includes the person’s family, peers,
school, and neighborhood.
• In the microsystem, the most direct
interactions with social agents take
place.
• The individual is not passive, but
rather helps construct the
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The Mesosystem
• Involves relations between
microsystems or connections
between contexts.
• Examples:
– The relation of family experiences
to school experiences.
– The relation of family experiences
to peer experiences.
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The Exosystem
• Involved when experiences in
another social setting—in which the
individual does not have an active
role—influence what the individual
experiences in an immediate
context.
• Example:
– Work experiences may affect a
woman’s relationship with her
husband and child, due to travel
and increased job responsibilities.
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The Macrosystem
• Involves the culture in
which individuals live.
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The Chronosystem
• Involves the patterning of
environmental events and
transitions over the life course,
as well as sociohistorical
circumstances.
• Example:
– The effects of divorce on
children vary based on the time
since the divorce and the gender
of the children.
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Contributions of
Ecological Theory
• It provides a systematic
examination of macro and micro
dimensions of environmental
systems.
• It gives attention to connections
between environmental settings.
• It gives consideration to
sociohistorical influences on
development.
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Criticisms of
Ecological Theory
• Even with the added discussion
of biological influences in recent
years, there is still too little
attention to biological
foundations of development.
• It gives inadequate attention to
cognitive processes.
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An Eclectic Theoretical
Orientation
• Does not follow any one theoretical
approach
• Selects and uses whatever is
considered best from each theory
• Acknowledges that no one theory
provides a complete description and
explanation of development, and that
each has made important contributions
to understanding development
• Presented and maintained throughout
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R esearch
M ethods
O bservation
S tandardized
Tests
P hysiological
and Animal
R esearch
E xperimental
R esearch
Interviews and
Q uestionnaires
Life-History
R ecords
C orrelational
R esearch
Time S pan
of R esearch
C ase S tudies
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Observation
• Requires:
– Knowing what you’re looking for
– Conducting observations in unbiased manner
– Accurately recording and categorizing what
you see
– Effectively communicating your observations
• Can be made in laboratories or naturalistic
settings
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Laboratories vs.
Naturalistic Settings
• Laboratories are controlled settings
from which many of the complex
factors of the real world have been
removed. Criticized for being
artificial.
• Naturalistic observation occurs
outside a laboratory in the “real
world”; places such as schools,
home, museums, and offices.
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Interviews and
Questionnaires
• Used to learn about experiences,
beliefs, and feelings
• Involve concrete, specific,
unambiguous questions
• Problems may arise with the social
desirability effect: when individuals
respond in a way they think is most
socially desirable, rather than how
they truly feel.
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Case Studies
• An in-depth look at an individual
• Used when unique aspects of a
person’s life cannot be duplicated
• Provides information about a
person’s fears, hopes, fantasies,
traumatic experiences, etc.
• Findings are not readily
generalizable
• Concern over reliability of
judgements made by single
psychologist
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Standardized Tests
• Commercially prepared tests that
assess individuals’ performance in
different domains
• Allow an individual’s performance to
be compared to the performance of
others
• Used for:
– Outcome measures for research studies
– Helping psychologists and educators
make decisions and comparisons
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Life-History Records
• Records of information about a
lifetime chronology of events and
activities
• Involve a combination of data
records on education, work, family,
and residence
• Using multiple materials enables
comparison of information from
varied sources, resulting in a more
accurate record.
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Physiological Research and
Research with Animals
• These focus on the biological basis
of behavior.
• Much physiological research cannot
be carried out with humans, thus
animals are studied.
• Animal studies enable researchers to
control subjects’ genetic
background, diet, experiences, etc.
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Correlational Research
• The goal is to describe the
strength of the relation between
two or more events or
characteristics.
• The more strongly two events are
correlated, the more effectively we
can predict one from the other.
• It needs to be used with caution as
correlation does not equal
causation.
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Experimental Research
• This allows researchers to determine
the causes of behavior.
• It uses experimentation: carefully
regulated procedures in which one or
more significant factors is
manipulated, and all others held
constant.
• Experimental research involves
independent and dependent variables,
experimental groups, control groups,
Blackassignment.
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and random
Definition of
Independent and
Dependent Variables
• Independent variables are
the manipulated, influential,
experimental factors.
• Dependent variables are the
factors that are measured in
an experiment. They can
change as the IV is
manipulated.
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Definition of
Experimental and
Control Groups
• Experimental groups are groups
whose experiences in a study are
manipulated.
• Control groups are groups who are
treated in every way like the
experimental groups except for the
manipulated factors. They serve as
the baseline against which the
effects of the manipulated condition
can be compared.
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Definition of Random
Assignment
• The process of assigning
participants to experimental
and control groups by
chance, reducing the
likelihood that the
experiment’s results will be
due to any preexisting
differences between the
groups.
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Time Span of Research
• The Cross-Sectional
Approach
• The Longitudinal
Approach
• The Sequential Approach
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The Cross-Sectional
Approach: Individuals of
different ages are
compared at one time.
Pros
– Study can be
accomplished in
a short period of
time.
– Researchers
don’t have to
wait for subjects
to age.
Cons
– Provides no
information about
how individuals
change.
– Provides no
information about
the stability of
characteristics.
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The Longitudinal
Approach The same
individuals are studied
over a period of time.
Cons
Pros
– Provide a wealth of
information about
stability and
change in
development.
– Provide insight into
the importance of
early experience for
later development.
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– Expensive and time
consuming.
– Subjects more likely to
drop out due to
moving, losing interest,
or illness.
– Subjects who remain
may be more
compulsive and
conformity oriented.
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The Sequential
Approach
• A combination of the crosssectional and longitudinal
approach.
– Begins with a cross-sectional study
of individuals of different ages.
– Months or years later, the same
individuals are tested again along
with a new group of subjects for
each age level.
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The Sequential
Approach (cont’d)
• Complex, expensive, and time
consuming.
• Provides information not
obtainable through using either
the cross-sectional or
longitudinal designs alone.
• Especially helpful in examining
cohort effects in life-span
development.
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Cohort Effects
• Cohort effects are due to
a person’s time of birth or
generation, but not to actual age.
• They can powerfully affect the
dependent measures in a study
focused on age.
• Age changes in one cohort can be
examined and compared with age
changes in another cohort.
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R esearch
Jou rn als
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Research Journals
• Publish scholarly and academic
information.
• Scholars publish most of their
research in journals.
• Articles are written for other
professionals in the field.
• Articles undergo intense scrutiny by
a board of experts in the field.
• Serve as the core of information in
virtuallyBlack
every
academic discipline.
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Some Journals Related
to Life-Span
Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Developmental Psychology
Child Development
Pediatric Nursing
Pediatrics
Journal of Gerontology
Infant Behavior and Development
Journal of Research on Adolescence
Journal of Adult Development
Human Development
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Journal Article Format
• Abstract- a brief summary of the article.
• Introduction- introduces the issue that is being
studied along with a concise literature review,
theoretical implications, and hypotheses.
• Method - provides a clear description of the
experiment and all its elements.
• Results - reports the analysis of the data
collected.
• Discussion - presents conclusions, inferences,
and interpretations of findings.
• References - the bibliographic information for
each source cited in the article.
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R esearch
C hallenges
E thics
Gender
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E thnicity and
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Ethics
• Ethics of research are
concerned with the well-being
of subjects with regard to
physical and mental harm.
Participants or their parents
must give informed consent.
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Gender
• A focus on gender in research
is concerned with gender bias
in all aspects of research
(theory, questions, hypotheses,
participants, design), primarily
against women.
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Ethnicity and Culture
• Ethnicity and culture must be
considered in research to ensure the
inclusion of individuals from
minority backgrounds in research.
• There must also be an awareness of
ethnic gloss—using an ethnic label,
such as African American or Latino,
in a superficial way that makes an
ethnic group look more
homogeneous than it really is.
Black Hawk College
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