Vietnam – the 10,000 Day War

Kevin J. Benoy

• • •

French Indo-China

For five years during WW2, French Indo-China was administered by Japan, with Vichy representatives actively collaborating with the Japanese military.

When the war closed, the Japanese tried to forestall the possibility of a French mutiny against them by installing a puppet government under the leadership of Vietnamese Emperor Bao Dai.

Real power remained in Japanese hands.

French Indo-China

• • • Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese Communist, formed the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (abbreviated to Viet Minh) to wage a guerilla war against the Japanese.

Ho’s forces were the only effective anti-Japanese group, seizing control of much of Vietnam by the time of the Japanese surrender.

Bao Dai resigned and Vietnam was united under Ho, who declared independence on September 2, 1945.

• • • • •

French Indo-China

The Potsdam agreement provide for the British and Chinese to supervise the disarming of Japanese troops in the region.

The supervising powers differed in their handling of the domestic political situation.

The Chinese did not interfere with Ho in the North.

The British actively supported the restoration of French power in the South.

Against the wishes of his followers, Ho attempted to reach a mutually acceptable settlement with the French.

French Indo-China

• • • • • Negotiations broke down in 1946.

France tended to control the cities and the Viet Minh the countryside in the north.

At the end of the year, the French opened hostilities at Haiphong – killing 6,000 civilians.

The Viet Minh responded with a failed drive against Hanoi.

Both settled into a prolonged struggle.

French Indo-China

• • The French controlled the cities and highways but the countryside remained firmly in Ho’s hands.

Mao’s victory in China greatly strengthened Ho’s position as supplies now flowed freely into the North of the country.

French Indo-China

• • • • • The French failed to address the clear wish of the Vietnamese for independence.

Ho was willing to remain in the French Community were it to be granted.

Instead, they set up a puppet government under Bao Dai.

The Soviets and Chinese recognized Ho as the legitimate national leader.

The British and Americans recognized Bao Dai.

French Indo-China

• • • • The cost of the war was too much for France to bear.

In 1950 the Americans committed to assist them.

By 1952-53, the Americans were paying 2/3 the cost of the war – but did not commit their own forces.

France was increasingly anxious to get out.

French Indo-China

• • • • Viet Minh control of the countryside meant a relatively free flow of equipment from China.

The French attempted a decisive military move to block this.

An air drop at Dien Bien Phu inserted thousands of French troops into a strategically important position.

The French dug in, but soon found themselves cut off, having to rely on air drops for all supplies.

French Indo-China

• • • The French sought American intervention – air strikes on their attackers.

Eisenhower suggested aid must be given to prevent a domino effect in South East Asia.

The US Congress was divided, with some saying the US should fully support the French and others, sometimes called the “never again club,” saying this should be avoided so as not to create another Korea.

French Indo-China

• • • • While the US deliberated, General Giap won the decisive battle.

On May 7, 1954, the French surrendered at Dien Bien Phu.

France sought a negotiated end to the war at Geneva./ On July 20, the Franco Vietnamese military command and the Viet Minh military command agreed to a cease fire.

The Geneva Accords

• • A temporary partition of Vietnam was arranged, with elections to be held in 2 years.

An 8 Power Declaration formalized the agreement, providing for 3 independent states in the former colony, supervised elections in Vietnam, and no foreign bases allowed in the region.

The Geneva Accords

• • • The South Vietnamese leader, Ngo Dinh Diem, who replaced Bao Dai in 1955, did not feel bound by the agreement.

He recognized that Ho’s Communists would easily win an election.

With American support, Diem refused to allow the elections; instead, he sought to entrench his position in South Vietnam.

South Vietnam

• • The US pressed for a regional alliance, like NATO – resulting in the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which guaranteed the security of South-East Asian nations against foreign (read Communist) aggression.

The membership of the organization curiously included more out-of-region countries than local ones.

Diem’s South Vietnam

• • Though he began his rule with much needed reforms, it soon became apparent that Diem used repression to further his interests and those of the Roman Catholic minority in his country.

A Communist-led insurrection began in 1957 – a year after the elections were supposed to take place.

Diem’s South Vietnam

• • With Communist victory looming, Diem relied on increased US help.

President Kennedy dispatched 16,000 advisors to South Vietnam, along with vast quantities of military equipment.

Diem’s South Vietnam

• • • Diem’s persecution of the majority Buddhist interests led to dramatic protests by monks.

Several burned themselves alive on the streets of Saigon in events broadcast around the world.

Diem became an embarrassment to many in South Vietnam and to the US administration.

Coup D’Etat

• • • In 1963 the South Vietnamese military sounded out the US about a coup to replace Diem.

Army and air force officers overthrew him, but could not bring stable government.

In the next two years there were 9 changes in government, leading up to Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky seizing control in June, 1965.

Post Diem Vietnam

• • • • • • • Ky’s government differed little from Diem’s.

Buddhists still opposed the government – until Ky broke their resistance in the Spring of 1966.

Civil liberties, especially freedom of the press, were limited and political opponents imprisoned.

Political parties could only operate if they did not oppose the government or its policies.

Elections were held, but were farcical.

In 1967 the military candidate Nguyen Van Thieu and his running-mate, Ky, took power with only 35% of the vote.

The civilian candidate, winning most of the votes, was jailed.

Safe Villages Policy

• • • The US became embroiled in Vietnam early on, but the 1960s saw incremental increases in US involvement.

Kennedy’s advisors set up the safe village policy, modeled on British counter-insurgency in the Malayan emergency.

Peasants were moved into fortified villages to protect them from the Viet Cong and to isolate the Viet Cong outside the wire.

Safe Villages Policy

• • Whereas in Malaya, the insurgents came from an identifiable ethnic minority, the same was not true of South Vietnam.

It was assumed that South Vietnamese peasants supported the government, but in practice the relocated peasants were often Viet Cong themselves.

Johnson and Escalation

• • After Kennedy was assassinated, Lynden Johnson took over and committed to continue the war.

Reports of American advisors that the Viet Cong and NLF (Communist and non-communist anti government people) controlled 40% of South Vietnamese villages did not deter him.

Johnson and Escalation

• • • Johnson believed the Viet Cong were controlled by Ho Chi Minh.

In 1964 Johnson gained congressional approval for limited bombing of North Vietnam after an alleged attack on US destroyers by North Vietnamese torpedo boats off the North Vietnamese coast.

This was known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Johnson and Escalation

• • • In 1965 Johnson expanded the war by authorizing the bombing of North Vietnamese cities.

In the next 7 years, more bombs were dropped on North Vietnam than the total on Germany during WW2.

Four weeks after the bombing began, North Vietnam sent its first regular army units into the South.

Johnson and Escalation

• • • • US involvement in the war increased dramatically.

On March 7, 1965, 3,500 marines were landed at Da Nang.

By July the total number of US combat troops stood at 75,000.

By the late 1960’s the total rose as high as 510,000.

Johnson and Escalation

• • • In addition to US forces, there were 750,000 regular South Vietnamese troops, 50,000 South Koreans, and detachments from Thailand, New Zealand and Australia – the last 3 honouring SEATO commitments.

Against them were about 70,000 North Vietnamese regulars and around 450,000 Viet Cong.

The initiative lay with the outnumbered guerilla fighters.

Winning the War?

• Unable to point to large scale victories in the field, American and South Vietnamese military officials cited body counts as evidence that they were winning the war.

The Tet Offensive

• • Such optimism was shattered in 1968 when the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese launched their February Tet Offensive, capturing 80% of South Vietnam’s towns and villages – even fighting within the US embassy in Saigon itself.

Most of the gains were short lived – but the shock value was far more important.

The Tet Offensive

• • • As intended by General Giap, architect of the offensive, it convinced many in Washington that victory was not possible and continuation of the war at this level unacceptable.

President Johnson refused the demand of his commander in Vietnam, General William Westmoreland, that 206,000 additional ground troops be sent.

Instead, Johnson ordered suspension of bombing in the North.

Vietnamization

• • • • Johnson was broken, deciding not to fight the next election.

Republican candidate Richard Nixon swept to power on a platform with two main planks: – Law and order at home.

– Getting out of Vietnam.

For the latter, the euphemism was Vietnamization. The US would draw down its contribution and South Vietnam would carry more of the burden of fighting the war.

By mid 1971, about ½ the US contingent had been withdrawn.

Vietnamization

• • • Now the South Vietnamese were at greater risk.

To bolster them, Nixon ordered extensive bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail – the supply route from North to South through Laos and Cambodia.

Apart from destabilizing both countries, the bombing had almost no effect on the Communists.

Opposition to the War

• Revulsion at the use of napalm and chemical defoliants – as well as the indiscriminate killing of combatants and civilians during the war – and revulsion at the brutality of the South Vietnamese regime – and even of some US troops, resulted in a powerful anti-war movement in America.

Opposition to the War

• Massacres in Vietnam were one thing, but what happened on the campus of Kent State University (Ohio) in 1970 shocked Americans even more.

• Trouble on and off campus accompanied frequent demonstrations. On May 1, riots occurred downtown. Police pushed the demonstrators back to the university campus.

• The next day the Kent City mayor called on the National Guard to restore order as the ROTC building was torched and police were pelted with bottles.

• A new demonstration was called for on the 4 th , but officials tried to ban it.

• The crowd was ordered to disperse, but did not.

• National Guardsmen advanced with bayonets fixed.

• A sergeant and then some of his men opened fire.

• 4 died and another 9 were wounded.

• • • • •

Paris Peace Talks

Formal and informal talks had taken place since 1968 – to no avail.

In 1972 agreement was reached.

In January, 1973 a cease fire was arranged.

The US agreed to withdraw their forces in 60 days and the North and South agreed to respect the frontier along the 17 th parallel.

Nixon promised the South Vietnamese that massive air support would be given if the North broke their word. With Nixon having just won easy re election, the South Vietnamese agreed to terms.

Collapse

• • Nixon was in no position to keep his word when the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese began their drive on Saigon.

From when word of the Watergate break-in broke, to Nixon’s 1974 resignation – the President was consumed by his own troubles.

Collapse

• • • With the US no longer interested in Vietnam, the communists were emboldened.

In April, 1975 Saigon fell.

The last Americans were flown from the US embassy roof and thousands of their South Vietnamese associates were left behind.

Collapse

• • • In the same year, both Cambodia and Laos fell to their communist insurgents.

Had Eisenhower’s dominos fallen? Would Thailand, Burma and Malaysia be next?

The reality was more complex as huge differences emerged between these regimes.

Conclusions

• • • • Vietnam was at last united, but the cost was great.

Vietnam suffered huge human and material damage; wounds would not easily be healed.

Opponents of the communists were sent to concentration camps for “re-education.” Freedom of speech was even more curtailed.

Conclusions

• • • • • America was badly split as a result of the war.

Opposition to the war was widespread – especially among the young. Many saw the war as a dreadful mistake.

Coupled with the Watergate political scandal, many Americans lost faith in their government.

While previous war veterans came home to tremendous welcomes, the Vietnam vets returned to embarrassed silence.

Some returned with serious drug addictions..

• • •

Conclusions

For a decade American foreign policy carefully avoided foreign entanglements for fear of another Vietnam.

Ronald Reagan’s dramatic political victories in the 1980s were largely due to his ability to restore American pride.

A decade after the war ended, a flood of Vietnam War films were released as the US finally came to terms with the conflict.

Conclusions

• • • On the surface, Vietnam appeared a great victory for Communism.

Beneath the surface the truth was more complex. China and the USSR both supported North Vietnam during the war.

The conflict over, Vietnam would now have to choose one sponsor.

Conclusions

• • • The Vietnamese and Laotians chose the Soviets, while Cambodia sided with China.

Tension along the Sino Soviet border exploded into war in 1979.

A stalemate resulted as experienced North Vietnamese troops blunted the attack of vast Chinese forces.

Conclusions

• • • • • Cambodia suffered immensely through the rule of Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge, who set out to completely rebuild society.

All of Phnom Penh was forced into the countryside to do peasant labour.

Millions were killed by the murderous new regime.

Eventually , in 1979, Vietnam intervened, toppling the Khmer regime.

Pol Pot and his supporters fled to Thailand, from which they launched cross border raids.

Conclusions

• • • It was not until 1993 that a UN brokered peace deal ended the conflict.

Pol Pot died in 1998 – mourned by few.

However, the land mines placed during the long border conflict still kill and maim.

Conclusions

• • • • Seeing the success of China’s post-Mao liberalization of business, the Vietnamese did the same in 1986, calling the policy Doi Moi – market socialism.

In 2001 reforms were deepened.

Tourism has been promoted and war-tourism, especially from America, is an important contributor to the Vietnamese economy.

Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) is, once again, an important business center.

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