Transcript Human Development Program 1

HDP 1 Final Review
Fall 2005
Topics covered
WEEK 0
Th 9/22
Introduction to course (Jeff Elman, Dept. of Cognitive Science)
WEEK 1
Tu, 9/27
Infancy and Evolution (Jim Moore, Dept. of Anthropology)
Th 9/29
The History of Childhood (Stefan Tanaka, Dept. of History)
WEEK 2
Tu 10/4
Genes, Brain Development and Behavior (Leslie Carver,
Dept. of Psychology)
Th 10/6
Brain Development: The Basics (Joan Stiles, Dept. of
Cognitive Science)
WEEK 3
Tu 10/11
CLASS CANCELLED
Th 10/13
Development of Visual Perception (Karen Dobkins,
Dept. of Psychology)
WEEK 4
Tu 10/18
Conceptual Development (Gedeon Deak, Dept. of
Cognitive Science)
Th 10/20
Social Development (Gail Heyman, Dept. of
Psychology)
WEEK 5
Tu 10/25
Autism (Aubyn Stahmer, Children’s Hospital)
WEEK 6
Th 11/3
First Language Acquisition (Farrell Ackerman, Dept.
of Linguistics)
WEEK 7
Tu 11/8
Cross-cultural perspectives (Mike Cole, Dept. of
Communication)
Th 11/10
Evaluating Educational Reform (Julian Betts, Dept.
of Economics)
WEEK 8
Tu 11/15
Brain Development and Plasticity (Joan Stiles, Dept.
of Cognitive Science)
Thu 11/17 Second Language Acquisition (Grant Goodall, Dept.
of Linguistics)
WEEK 9
Tu 11/22
Modeling Development (Jeff Elman, Dept. of
Cognitive Science)
Th 11/24
Thanksgiving
WEEK 10
Tu 11/29
Aging (Jeanne Townsend, Marissa Westerfield, Frank
Haist; Depts. of Neurosciences and Psychiatry)
Th 12/1
Review
See midterm review notes
for review of the 1st half of the quarter
First Language Acquisition
(Farrell Ackerman)
Important terms and concepts
• Nativism
• Empiricism
• Interactionism, constructivism, emergentism
• Universal Grammar (Chomsky)
• Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,
discourse
• Coarticulation
• Bates reading is important:
– Know milestones on Table I
– Know the theoretical controversies
The Main Subsystems
Sound:
• Phonological system (what is contained in language particular
sound systems, I.e., sounds, how they combine)
Lexicon & Grammar:
• Morphological system (how words are formed)
• Syntactic system (how words combine into phrases and
sentences )
• Semantic system (meanings of words and larger expressions)
Communication:
• Pragmatic system (how language is used in different contexts)
• Discourse system (connecting utterances/sentences into a
coherent narratives)
Mismatch 1:
Phonology vs. Morphology
Phonological
(Sound) Structure
Morphological
(Word) Structure
Other mismatches:
“Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”
(Syntax ok, Semantics bad)
“The Voringian Binx glorphed the Knapaboor.”
(Syntax ok, Semantics & Lexicon bad)
Milestones
0-3 months INITIAL STATE OF THE SYSTEM
— prefers to listen to sounds in native language
— can hear all the phonetic contrasts used in the world’s languages
— produces only “vegetative” sounds
3-6 months VOWELS IN PERCEPTION AND PRODUCTION
— cooing, imitation of vowel sounds only
— perception of vowels organized along language-specific lines
6-8 months BABBLING IN CONSONANT-VOWEL SEGMENTS
8-10 months WORD COMPREHENSION
— starts to lose sensitivity to consonants outside native language
12-13 months WORD PRODUCTION (NAMING)
16-20 months WORD COMBINATIONS
— vocabulary acceleration
— appearance of relational words (e.g., verbs and adjectives)
24-36 months GRAMMATICIZATION
— grammatical function words
— inflectional morphology
— increased complexity of sentence structure
3 years —> adulthood LATE DEVELOPMENTS
— continued vocabulary growth
— increased accessibility of rare and/or complex forms
— reorganization of sentence-level grammar for discourse
purposes
The main subsystems: developmental
milestones
Major issues
It’s mostly Nature
It’s mostly Nurture
“Nativism”
“Empiricism”
Universal Grammar (Chomsky)
Behaviorism (Skinner 20th
• No explicit instruction
• Poverty of stimulus
• Rapid and effortless
acquisition
c.)
• Gradual (and effortful?)
acquisition
• External stimulus leading to
appropriate responses.
• Sufficiently reach stimulus
The third alternative:
Interactionism (Braine 1994)/Social Interactionism (Snow 1989), Constructivism (Piaget
1926) Emergentism, Neuroconstructivism (MacWhinney 1999, Elman et. al. 1996, KarmiloffSmith1995 )
There are no innately given language specific (= domain specific)
capacities, but rather there are innately given language relevant
(= domain general) capacities which conspire over time to
produce language.
Cross-cultural perspectives
(Mike Cole)
Important terms and concepts
• Standard definition of development (minus culture)
• Culture (definition & history of term, metaphoric usage, etc.)
• Developmental niche
• Four frameworks (Geselle, Skinner, Piaget)
• Phylogeny / Ontogeny
• Bio-social-behavioral shifts
• Prolepsis
• Attachment
– Ainsworth’s 3 categories of behavior
– the “Strange Situation” experiment & its results across cultures
Development:
The sequence of changes in physical, cognitive,
and social changes that human organisms undergo
from the moment of conception through adulthood and
old age
Culture:
The socially inherited body of past human
accomplishments that serves as the resources for the
current life of a social group ordinarily thought of as the
inhabitants of a country or region
Developmental niche:
The child’s location within the complex set of sociocultural-ecological relations that form the proximal
environment of development.
(1) physical and social settings in which the child lives
(2) culturally regulated childrearing and socialization
practices of the child's society
(3) psychological characteristics of the child's parents,
especially parental theories about the process of
child development and their affective orientation to
the tasks of child rearing
Biological-maturational
B = Biological
E = environmental
Environmental-learning
UE = universal features
of the environment
= culture
Interactional
Cultural-context
Prolepsis
• British mother:
“She is never going to be a rugby player.
• British father :
“ I will be worried to death when she is 18”
• Zinacantecan parents
give their sons three chilies to hold, a digging stick, an axe, and a
[strip of] palm so that will learn to farm and weave palm. Girls are
given toy loom for weaving.
Attachment: Cultural Contributions
• Between 6-9 months in many cultures: marked bio-socialbehavioral shift
• Onset of crawling…how does it change the babies life?
• Onset of crawling accompanied by
• new visual orientation to caretakers: social referencing
• new orientation to strangers and unusual events
• new orientation to caretakers: attachment behaviors
• Universal changes? Or culture-specific?
The Strange Situation
• 8 phases, 3 mins long:
Phase 1: After giving instructions the experimenter leaves the child
and caregiver alone
Phase 2: The experimenter returns
Phase 3: The caregiver leaves
Phase 4: The caregiver returns
Phase 5: Child and mother reunite
Phase 6: Mother leaves again
Phase 7: The experimenter returns
Phase 8: The caregiver returns .
Cultural Differences in Behavior in the Strange Situation?
(2000)
Percentage of Children Assigned to Each Attachment Rating
Country
Anxious/Avoidant
USA (n = 105)21
Secure
67
Anxious/Resistant
12
Germany (n = 46)
52
35
13
Israel (n = 82)
7
57
34
Japan (n = 60)
0
68
32
Cultural Differences in Behavior in the Strange Situation?
(2005)
Evaluating educational reform
(Julian Betts)
Important terms and concepts
• Basic trends (Betts slides 3, 4, 15)
• Results of 2 studies:
– What works, what doesn’t
– What works/doesn’t at different grade levels
• Blueprint for Success strategies
• Policy implications (Betts slides 24, 25, 26)
• “fixed effect” analysis
Have U.S. Public Schools Improved Over Time?
Inputs have Soared:
7000
25
6000
20
5000
4000
15
3000
10
2000
5
1000
Spend per Pupil (2001-02 $)
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
0
1960
0
Pupil-teacher ratio
Pupil-teacher ratio
30
1955
Spending per Pupil
8000
…but Test Scores Have Not Risen Much:
500
480
460
440
420
400
380
1967 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989 1990 1991
Year
S A T V e rb a l
S A T M a th
Large Variations in Test Scores
Related to Socioeconomic Status
Spring 1998 reading scores by SES quintile of school
750
High SES
700
Low SES
Score
650
600
550
500
2
3
4
5
6
7
Initial grade level
8
9
10
Statistical Approach
• Models explain gains in math and reading test scores for
each student
– Use test scores spring 1998 to spring 2000
• Link students to classroom peers, teachers
• Control for unobserved but fixed aspects of each
student, school, zip code
• Identify effect of school resources such as class size by
small changes in class size experienced by a student in
different years
Elementary Schools
Peer Groups, Class Size More Important Than Teacher Qualifications
Predicted change in rate of learning
Reading
30
Math
20
10
0
-10
-20
% days
absent
Grade
peer
scores
Class
peer
scores
Class
size
Emerg'y
(0-1)
Interns
(0-1)
Masters
High Schools
Peers, Absences, and Courses Taken Matter in Math
Predicted change in rate of learning
Reading
40
Math
30
20
%
10
0
-10
% days
absent
Grade peer
scores
Class peer
scores
# classes
taken
(>2)
-20
-30
# classes
taken
(0-1)
High School
Teacher Qualifications Matter Sporadically but Importantly
Predicted change in rate of learning
Reading
Math
100
80
60
40
%
20
0
Masters
-20
Supplemental
-40
Board
resolution
-60
-80
PhD
Emerg'y
Elementary Schools
Blueprint Greatly Boosted Average Gain in Reading Scores
Elementary School Students
40
35
30
Change
25
(%)
20
15
10
5
0
API 2
school
Focus
school
EDRP
Summer
Interschool session
Middle Schools
Many Blueprint Elements Raised Scores
Middle School Students
70
60
Change 50
40
(%)
30
20
10
0
Literacy
block
Literacy
core
EDRP
Summer
school
Intersession
High Schools
Summer School the Only Element That Improved Reading Scores
High School Students
80
60
40
20
Change
(%)
0
- 20
- 40
- 60
- 80
- 100
- 120
- 140
Peer coach
as % of
enrollment
Summer
school
Literacy
block
Block / core
for EL students
Participation Patterns Imply Reductions in Ethnic Test Score Gaps,
Except in High School
Two-Year Reduction in Ethnic Test Score Gaps
Attributable to Blueprint
Black -White
Hispanic-White
10
5
%
0
-5
Middle
school
- 10
- 15
- 20
Elementary
school
High
school
Brain development and plasticity
(Joan Stiles)
Important terms and concepts
• Milestones (slide 9)
• Effects of focal lesion on language (depending on brain
area)
• Spatial analysis: parts vs. wholes (featural vs. integrative)
• Effects of focal lesions on spatial analysis:
– When lesion occurs in an adult
– When lesion occurs perinatally
• Hierarchical figures tests and results
The goal of the research
How do the well-characterized mature patterns of
association between brain systems and
behaviors develop?
Language and spatial cognitive development in
children with congenital focal brain injury
1. Pre- or perinatal occurrence of brain lesion.
2. Single, unilateral focal lesion.
3. Lesion identification by CT or MRI.
4. Normal or corrected to normal vision / audition.
From Moses, 1999
LEFT HEMISPHERE – ADULT
Vocabulary comprehension
in children with early injury
PRODUCTION
LEFT HEMISPHERE
COMPREHENSION
RIGHT HEMISPHERE
LPT LESION
LEFT POSTERIOR TEMPORAL LESIONS
NO COMPREHENSION DEFICITS
RIGHT HEMISPHERE LESIONS
+ COMPREHENSION DEFICITS
LEFT HEMISPHERE – ADULT
Vocabulary production
PRODUCTION
LEFT HEMISPHERE
COMPREHENSION
LEFT POSTERIOR
TEMPORAL LESIONS
VOCABULARY PRODUCTION
DEFICITS.
LPT LESION
LEFT HEMISPHERE – ADULT
Grammar production
PRODUCTION
COMPREHENSION
LEFT HEMISPHERE
LEFT FRONTAL + LPT:
MORE SERIOUS
GRAMMAR PRODUCTION
DEFICITS
FRONTAL
LESION
LPT LESION
LEFT POSTERIOR TEMPORAL LESIONS
GRAMMAR PRODUCTION DEFICITS
For LANGUAGE:
Are mappings of lesion site to functional deficit like
those found in adult lesion populations?
NO!
RH injury > word comprehension deficits
LPT injury > word production deficits &
grammar production deficits
Spatial deficits in ADULTS with Right and Left posterior brain
injuries
 LEFT POSTERIOR BRAIN INJURY: Impairs ability to define and
encode the parts of a spatial array.
• Oversimplification of spatial patterns
• Omission of pattern detail
• Patients rely upon overall configural cues and ignore specific
elements of spatial patterns.
 RIGHT POSTERIOR BRAIN INJURY: Impairs ability to integrate
pattern elements into a coherent whole.
• Focus on the parts or elements of the pattern
• Patients are able to produce or report the parts of a form but
fail to attend to the overall configuration.
Memory reproduction: Adults with L and R hemisphere lesions
House drawings – children with R or L focal brain injury
(4-5 years)
@ 5 yrs: L lesion: not too bad; R lesion: lack of integration
3 Children with LEFT Hemisphere Stroke: LOCAL Processing Deficit
Model
(5yr, 1mo)
(5yr, 1mo)
(6yr, 0mo)
3 Children with RIGHT Hemisphere Stroke: GLOBAL Processing Deficit
Model
(6yr, 2mo)
(6yr, 3mo)
(6yr, 11mo)
For SPATIAL PROCESSING:
Are mappings of lesion site to functional deficit like
those found in adult lesion populations?
YES!
The patterns of deficit associated with left or
right posterior injury are similar in adults and
children
Second language acquisition and the critical period
(Grant Goodall)
Important terms and concepts
• Characteristics of classroom learning
– How many hours? When took off? Vocabulary taught?
• Ways in which L2 acquisition resembles L1 acquisition
• Ways in which L2 acquisition diverges from L1 acquisition
• Things easy to learn in L2; things that are hard
• What is evidence for an L2 ‘critical period’?
• What is evidence against an L2 ‘critical period’?
Do we actually find such a critical period?
• The “classic” study says yes.
• Johnson & Newport (1989) compared English proficiency
of Korean and Chinese immigrants to U.S.
• Age of arrival ranged from 3 to 39
• Length of residence in U.S. at least 3 years
• Subjects tested on variety of English structures
Results
• Clear and strong advantage for early arrivals over late
arrivals
• Age of arrival before puberty
– Performance linearly related to age
• Age of arrival after puberty
– Performance low but highly variable
– Performance unrelated to age
Hakuta, Bialystok & Wiley (2003)
• Self-assessed oral proficiency ratings of Chinese- and
Spanish-speaking immigrants to U.S. (1990 U.S.
Census)
• Length of residence ≥ 10 years
• 2.3 million responses
• No cutoff point where decline begins
• No flattening out in adulthood
English proficiency ratings: Chinese speakers
Tentative conclusions
•
Is there a sharp cutoff point where sensitivity begins to decline?
NO
•
Does sensitivity flatten out in adulthood?
NO
•
Is there a significant change in sensitivity when maturation is reached?
NO
•
Is there a well-defined critical period for L2 acquisition?
NO
•
Does age affect L2 acquisition?
YES
Modeling development
(Jeff Elman)
Important terms and concepts
• History:
– First “computers”
– Properties of McCullough-Pitts neuron (digital/binary)
• Characteristics of digital computers; of brains
• Things digital computers do well; that brains do well
• Neural network architecture
• Word segmentation:
– the problem
– simulation results
– Saffran et al. experiment
• The word prediction simulation: what is its purpose? Its
result? How might it affect vocabulary acquisition?
The McCullough-Pitts (model) neuron
e1
en
i1
in

• CPU and memory are separate
• the memory and CPU are the same
• the processor is very fast
• the parts (neurons) are very slow
• serial operation
• parallel; enormous interconnectivity
• very reliable parts; but the
whole computer may break easily
• unreliable parts; but the whole
brain is very reliable
• computers are programmed
• brains learn
Things digital computers do well
• Numeric computation
• Symbolic computation
x = (.5 + 3.9) cos(31.2) - b cos((44.3/4 1 + 1)7)
• Repetitive operations
• Follow instructions
Things human brains do well
• Find subtle patterns (intuition?)
• Find novel solutions by analogy
• Learn
The word segmentation problem
Whereareth es il
ens
enc
es b et w eew
eenw or
or dd
ss
3.5
3
2.5
(y)
(s)
(a)
(a)
(g)
(m)
(h)
(g)
Error
(a)
2
(t)
(a)
(e)
(b)
1.5
(d)
(b)
(l)
(i)
(t)
(h)
(i)
0.5
(n)
(a)
(r)
(o)
(o)
(l)
(h)
(v)
(y)
(e)
(y)
0
(y)
(d)
(s)
Time
(e)
(m)
(l)
(r)
(n)
1
(a)
(p)
(a)
(e)
(y)
(e)
(a)
(y)
(e)
(d)
(p)
(p)
(i)
(l)
(y)
pabikulatidorepabikutalikulatidopabikulilitalatidotupabiku
Simulation: “statistical learning” can provide
evidence for where word boundaries are
Infant experiment: infants do indeed seem to
be capable of this kind of learning
Aging
(Jeanne Townsend, Marissa Westerfield, Frank Haist)
Important terms and concepts
• Demographics (slides 3, 4)
• Things that help successful aging
• Changes in brain structure
– White matter vs. Gray matter changes over time
– Which areas change most?
Age distribution of U.S population,
1980, 1990, and 2002
Year 1980
Year 1990
Year 2002
85+
80-84
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
0%
5%
10% 0%
Data source: The Bureau of the Census
5%
10% 0%
5%
10%
Our Aging Populace
• The most rapidly growing age group worldwide
is that over the age of 85 years.
• In the United States there are currently about 4
million persons over the age of 85; by 2050,
nearly 19 million are projected.
Gray Matter Volume
Peaks: 11-16 yrs
White Matter Volume
Grows to late middle age,
then stabilizes till old age
Courchesne, E., et al Normal brain development and aging: quantitative analysis at in
vivo MR imaging in healthy volunteers, Radiology, 216 (2000) 672-682.
Notable changes in brain structure
More loss of gray matter volume than white
- loss of intracellular fluid
- loss of dendritic branchings
Regions most affected:
- prefrontal cortex
- neocerebellum
- neostriatum (basal ganglia)
- association cortex
Cognitive losses
Sensory very affected (mostly periphery)
Motor less affected
Memory very affected
Attention very affected
Attention problems in the aging
• Selectivity (much affected)
• Sustained attention (not so bad)
• Divided attention (not so bad)
• Shifting attention (much affected)
• Spatial attention (much affected)
Common “forms” of memory
• Short-term (Immediate or Working) memory
– Limited storage capacity
– Limited duration (seconds, minutes)
– Linked to attention
• Long-term memory
– Unlimited capacity
– Long duration (minutes to decades)
– multifaceted
Memory problems in the aging
• Long-term memory
• Short-term memory (working memory)
• Vocabulary (gets better)
Memory and medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)
(patient H.M.)
Memory and medial temporal lobe
normal aging
Exam information
• Tuesday, December 6: 11:00am – 2:00pm
• The exam will take 2 hours
• Bring SCANTRON form X-101864-PAR-L
(available at Bookstore, 2nd floor: $0.15)
• Bring two (2) #2 pencils with fresh, clean erasers
• Know :
– Your PID (e.g., A01234567)
– Your TA’s name
– Your Section ID (A02, A08, A11, etc.)
• Coverage:
– Lecture = 70%; readings = 30%
• Format:
– 100 questions
(most worth 3 pts)
• All multiple choice
• 40 from pre-midterm; 60 post-midterm
Good luck!