The Enlightenment - Mount Saint Joseph High School
Download
Report
Transcript The Enlightenment - Mount Saint Joseph High School
The Enlightenment
The European Age of Reason
1689-1789
Origins of the Enlightenment
The ideals of humanism from the Renaissance
permeate society.
Rediscovery of classical texts influences the new
philosophers.
The Scientific Revolution convinces many that the
world can be understood through natural laws.
The Wars of Religion persuade many that
toleration is the only way for civilization to
survive.
The Doctrine of Progress
Philosophes believed in
the progress of human
beings.
Human beings were
basically good, but
corrupted by society;
therefore, human
institutions needed reform
Marquis de Condorcet
(1743-1794) made
argument in Progress of the
Human Mind
John Locke (1632-1704)
Two
Treatises
on
Civil
Government:justified supremacy
of Parliament; natural rights
Essay
Concerning Human
Understanding (1690): tabula
rasa (“blank slate”)
– considered one of most
important
Enlightenment
works
– all human knowledge is the
result of sensory experience:
thus, human progress is in the
hands of society—education!
Deism
secular world view: first time in human history;
marked end of age of religion
natural science and reason
deism: God created universe and then stepped
back and left it running (like a clock) – prime
mover
Grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural
law
Thomas Paine, Age of Reason: advocates deism
Voltaire also advocated deism over Christianity.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
François Marie Arouet
Ardent critic of the Old
Regime
Wrote essays, letters,
plays.
Candide (1759) satire
criticizing religious
persecution and
superstition.
Voltaire in England
Voltaire in imprisoned in France after his
ideas offend French authorities.
He lived in England from 1726 to 1729.
He comes to admire the English toleration
of political ideas and religion.
Returning to France, he published Letters
on the English (1733), admiring English
constitutionalism and criticizing French
absolutism.
Voltaire and Tolerance
Voltaire supported toleration in religion and
politics, an idea he saw in practice in
England.
Voltaire defended Jean Calas, a Hugeunot
accused of murdering his son lest he convert
to Catholicism.
He published his Treatise on Tolerance in
1763, convincing authorities to reverse their
conviction of Calas in 1765.
The Enlightened Despots
Catherine the Great
Least “enlightened” of
the Enlightened Despots
westernization:
architecture, sculpture,
music--supported
philosophes
reforms:reduced torture,
limited religious
toleration, some
education improvement,
increased local control
The Enlightened Despots
Joseph
II (1765-1790) – greatest of the
Enlightened despots (“greatest good for greatest
number”)
Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press,
freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable
justice system, made German official language (to
assimilate minorities), increased control over
Catholic education, expanded state schools, left
empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold
I rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)
The Enlightened Despots
Frederick the Great
– Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign;
ruler was the “first servant of the state”
– Religious freedom, education in schools and
universities, codified laws, promoted industry
and agriculture, encouraged immigration
– Social structure remained heavily stratified:
serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility,
Junkers became heart of military; difficult
upward mobility for middle class leadership.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
French attorney and
philosophe.
Believed in no single
political system.
In Spirit of the Laws
(1748) advocated
separation of powers
amongst executive,
legislative, and judicial
branches.
Diderot and the Encyclopedia
Denis Diderot (1718-
1784) edited the
Encyclopedia published
in 28 vols. Between 1751
and 1772.
Voltaire, Rousseau and
Montesquieu contributed
articles.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Born in Geneva to
Calvinist family
He believed rationalism
and civilization was
destroying rather than
liberating the
individual; emphasized
nature, passion—
influenced early
Romantic movement
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Natural Education
– Rousseau believed that in there natural state,
humans were virtuous, free, equal, and happy.
– Civilization had corrupted them.
– Natural education would free children of
corruption
– Set forth ideas in Emile (1762).
– Children would learn through experience
(nature, emotional experience), not books.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
General Will
– Rousseau advocated radical contract form of
government in The Social Contract (1762)
– Desired freedom, but rejected individualism
and focused on his role in society.
– People’s opinion would form the “general will”
to be carried out by a small government.
– He did not favor democracy, but felt that
sovereignty laid in the people.
Economic Philosophes
François Quesnay
(1694-1774) –
“physiocrats”: opposed
to mercantilist economic
theory.
advocated reform of the
agrarian order.
Adam Smith (17271790): Wealth of
Nations (1776): The
“Bible” of capitalism;
laissez faire “let do”
François Quesnay
Women Philosophes
Gender theory: women
played important role in
organizing salons.
Salons of Madame de
Geoffren and Louise de
Warens
Mary Wollstonecraft –
Vindication of the Rights of
Women (1792)
Olympe de Gouge
Declaration of the Rights of
Women
Mary Wollstonecraft
The Later Enlightenment:
Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789): humans were
machines governed by outside forces
– freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths
– severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment
David Hume (1711-76): emphasized limitations of human
reasoning (similar to Rousseau)
– human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became
dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment
Immanuel Kant (1724-1794): Separated science and
morality into separate branches of knowledge.
– Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but
could not provide a guide for morality
High Culture - Travel
Elites began to travel for pleasure in greater
numbers than ever before.
The “grand tour” of Europe became a must
for the cultured.
People wished to see the ruins of antiquity
and the new urban centers throughout
Europe.
Coffee houses offered a meeting place for
people to discuss philosophy and the issues
of the day.
The Salons
Groups organized by
women, such as
Madame de
Pompadour, of
wealthy families.
Gave a forum to which
philosophes could share
their ideas.
Allowed women a
place were they could
be taken seriously.
Often, the etiquette of
the gatherings made
things ‘artificial.’
Publishing and Reading
Publishing and bookselling became a major
commercial enterprise in the 18th century.
Newspapers and journals became a part of
the daily life of most urban Europeans.
Newspapers began to write more about
political issues, particularly in England and
during the Revolution in France.
There was also a large market for “bad
books” describing scandals and sex.
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Literature
– The Novel
• Novel had its origins in mid 18th century
England with the rising demand for fiction
from the middle class.
• Pioneers included Samuel Richardson and
Henry Fielding.
• A wide range of topics were covered in
novels; they shadowed the plays of the time
in dealing with family and social issues of
the day
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Poetry
– For 140 years from 1660 to 1800 neoclassical
poetry reigned England.
– Also known as Augustan poetry, neoclassical
used strictly, structurally balanced verses, witty
and elegant language with restrained and
controlled emotion, the idea being to create a
more refined verse.
– Amongst the most famous neoclassical poets
were John Dryden and Alexander Pope.
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Poetry
– However, in 1798 poets William Wordsworth and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge published an anthology
Lyrical Ballads, opening the Romantic period of poetry.
– Romantic poetry was the complete opposite of
Neoclassical.
– Romantic poetry used simple language to create the
impression that the poet were speaking out loud and
usually spoke about common, everyday aspects of life
and nature.
– Later famous romantic poets of the time were William
Blake, Lord Byron, John Keats and Percy Bysshe
Shelley.
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Poetry
– Johann von Goethe (1749-1832)
• Prolific German writer and poet
who’s work encompassed
Neoclassical and Romantic elements.
• He inspired the literary movement
known as Sturm und Drang (Storm
and Stress), emphasizing strong
emotion experience.
• His great works include The Sorrows
of Young Werther (1774) and Faust
(1801 and 1831)
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Music
– Symphony
– Began moving from “light” neoclassical
works to more powerful and extended works.
• Franz Joseph Hayden
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
– Powerful extended symphonies that reflected
the emotion of the Romantic movement.
• Ludwig von Beethoven
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Visual Arts
– Neoclassical Art is a severe and unemotional
form of art harkening back to the grandeur of
ancient Greece and Rome. Its rigidity was a
reaction to the overdone Rococo style and the
emotional charged Baroque style. The rise of
Neoclassical Art was part of a general revival of
interest in classical thought, which was of
major importance in the Enlightenment and the
American and French revolutions.
Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825)
The most famous painter in
Europe in the late 1700s
and early 1800s. He
breathed new life into
history painting with his
rigorously constructed
compositions
David could be petty,
graceless, and abrasive.
Intensely competitive, he
was confident and even
boastful of his talent.
Jacques-Louis David - The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons
Jacques-Louis David – Oath of the Horatii
Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe (1770)
Benjamin West, Penn's Treaty with the Indians (1771)
The Arts:
Neoclassicism to Romanticism
Romanticism might best be described as
anticlassicism. A reaction against Neoclassicism, it
is a deeply-felt style which is individualistic,
exotic, beautiful and emotionally wrought.
Although Romanticism and Neoclassicism were
philosophically opposed, they were the dominant
European styles for generations, and many artists
were affected to a lesser or greater degree by both.
Artists might work in both styles at different times
or even combine elements, creating an
intellectually Romantic work using a Neoclassical
visual style, for example.
Jacques-Louis David – Bonaparte Crossing the Alps
J.M.W. Turner - Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps
Popular Literature
Designed for those who could barely read or
what was going to be read aloud.
– Three main forms:
• Religious and superstitious works
• Almanacs
• Entertainment – satire, tales, fables.
Oral traditions continued with stories of
daily life.
Mass Education
Religious wars increased literacy and
education across Europe (particularly in
Protestant nations)
Schooling was designed to maintain the
social order and piety.
Many peasants opposed sending their
children to school when they could help the
family work.
Mass Education
Education in Western Europe was driven by
demand and the needs of the community.
In Prussia and Austria, education became a
state function
– Austria – Habsburg General School Ordinance
of 1774.
• Schools in every parish.
• Train teachers
• Education was said to be compulsory
– Prussia – Frederick the Great enacted similar
reforms with less enthusiasm.
Recreation for the Masses
The spread of pubs and taverns became
popular.
Festivals continued to be of importance.
First “spectator sports” become popular.
– Blood sports such as boxing and cock fighting
mixed with gambling popular with commoners.
– Horse racing also popular.
– Growing separation between elite and masses in
entertainment.