What Is Food Science? - NFSC Faculty Website
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Transcript What Is Food Science? - NFSC Faculty Website
Proteins
From the Greek “proteios” or primary.
Properties of Amino Acids:
Zwitterions
are electrically neutral, but carry a
“formal” positive or negative charge.
Give proteins their water solubility
Shape Interactions of Proteins
Emulsoids and Suspensiods
Proteins should be thought of as solids
Not all in a true solution, but bond to a lot of water
Can be described in 2 ways:
Emulsoids- have close to the same surface
charge, with many “shells” of bound water
Suspensoids- colloidal particles that are
suspended by charge alone
Quick Application: Food Protein Systems
Milk-
Emulsoid and suspensoid system
Classified
as whey proteins and caseins
Casein - a phosphoprotein in a micelle structure
Suspensoid - coagulates at IEP (casein)
Egg
(Albumen) – Emulsoid
Surface
denatures very easily
Heating drives off the structural water and creates a
strong protein to protein interaction
Cannot make foam from severely denatured egg white,
requires bound water and native conformation
Functional Properties of Proteins
3 major categories
Hydration properties
Protein to water interactions
Structure formation
Dispersion, solubility, adhesion, viscosity
Water holding capacity
Protein to protein interactions
Gel formation, precipitation, aggregation
Surface properties
Protein to interface interactions
Foaming and emulsification
1. Hydration Properties (protein to water)
Most foods are hydrated to some extent.
Behavior of proteins are influenced by the presence of water and
water activity
Dry proteins must be hydrated (food process or human digestion)
Solubility- as a rule of thumb, denatured proteins are less
soluble than native proteins
Many proteins (particularly suspensoids) aggregate or
precipitate at their isoelectric point (IEP)
Viscosity- viscosity is highly influenced by the size and
shape of dispersed proteins
Influenced by pH
Swelling of proteins
Overall solubility of a protein
2. Structure Formation (protein to protein)
Gels - formation of a protein 3-D network is from a balance
between attractive and repulsive forces between adjacent
polypeptides
Gelation- denatured proteins aggregate and form an ordered protein
matrix
Plays major role in foods and water control
Water absorption and thickening
Formation of solid, visco-elastic gels
In most cases, a thermal treatment is required followed by cooling
Yet a protein does not have to be soluble to form a gel (emulsoid)
Texturization – Proteins are responsible for the structure and
texture of many foods
Meat, bread dough, gelatin
Proteins can be “texturized” or modified to change their
functional properties (i.e. salts, acid/alkali, oxidants/reductants)
Can also be processed to mimic other proteins (i.e. surimi)
3. Surface Properties (protein to interface)
Emulsions- Ability for a protein to unfold (tertiary
denaturation) and expose hydrophobic sites that can
interact with lipids.
Alters viscosity
Proteins must be “flexible”
Overall net charge and amino acid composition
Foams- dispersion of gas bubbles in a liquid or highly
viscous medium
Solubility of the protein is critical; concentration
Bubble size (smaller is stronger)
Duration and intensity of agitation
Mild heat improves foaming; excessive heat destroys
Salt and lipids reduce foam stability
Some metal ions and sugar increase foam stability
Factors Affecting Changes to
Proteins
Denaturation
Aggregation
Salts
Gelation
Changes to Proteins
Native State
The natural form of a protein from a food
The unique way the polypeptide chain is oriented
There is only 1 native state; but many altered states
The native state can be fragile to:
Acids
Alkali
Salts
Heat
Alcohol
Pressure
Mixing (shear)
Oxidants (form bonds) and antioxidants (break bonds)
Changes to Proteins
Denaturation
Any
modification to the structural state
The structure can be re-formed
If severe, the denatured state is permanent
Denatured
proteins are common in processed foods
Decreased
water solubility (i.e. cheese, bread)
Increased viscosity (fermented dairy products)
Altered water-holding capacity
Loss of enzyme activity
Increased digestibility
Changes to Proteins
Temperature is the most common way to denature a
protein
Both hot and cold conditions affect proteins
Heating affects the tertiary structure
Every tried to freeze milk? Eggs?
Mild heat can activate enzymes
Hydrogen and ionic bonds dissociate
Hydrophobic regions are exposed
Hydration increases, or entraps water
Viscosity increases accordingly
Changes to Proteins
We
discussed protein solubility characteristics
Solubility depends on the nature of the solution
Water-soluble proteins
generally have more polar
amino acids on their surface.
Less soluble proteins have less polar amino acids
and/or functional groups on their surface.
Isoelectric Precipitations
Proteins
---++
have no net charge at their IEP
----++
-++
--
++
++
++
++
++
++
Strong Repulsion
(net negative charge)
--
--
--
---
Aggregation
(net neutral charge)
Strong Repulsion
(net positive charge)
++
-++
++
++
++
--++
-++
++
++
Isoelectric Precipitations
Proteins
--
---
--
--
--
Na+
can be “salted out”, adding charges
Na+
Na+
Aggregation
(net neutral charge)
++
++
++
++
++
++
ClCl-
Cl-
Measuring IEP Precipitations
Empirical
measurements for precipitation
A protein is dispersed in a buffered solution
Add
salt at various concentrations
Add alcohols (disrupt hydrophobic regions)
Change the pH
Add surfactant detergents (i.e. SDS)
Centrifuge and
The
measure quantitatively
pellet will be insoluble protein
The supernatant will be soluble protein
Gel Formation
Many foods owe their physical properties to a gel
formation. Influences quality and perception.
Cheese, fermented dairy, hotdogs, custards, etc
As little as 1% protein may be needed to form a rigid gel
for a food.
Most protein-based gels are thermally-induced
Thermally irreversible gels are most common
Cause water to be entrapped, and a gel-matrix formation
Gel formed during heating, maintained after cooling
Will not reform when re-heated and cooled
Thermally reversible gels
Gel formed after heating/cooling. Added heat will melt the gel.
What is more important in foods?
Protein precipitation
or
Protein solubilization
???
Effects of Food Processing
Processing and Storage
Decreases
Loss
of nutritional value in some cases
Severity
Loss
spoilage of foods, increases shelf life
of processing
of functionality
Denatured
Both
proteins have far fewer functional aspects
desirable and undesirable flavor changes
Processing and Storage
Proteins
are affected by
Heat
Extremes
in pH (remember the freezing example?)
Oxidizing conditions
Oxidizing additives, lipid oxidation, pro-oxidants
Reactions
with reducing sugars in browning rxns
Processing and Storage
Mild heat treatments (< 100°C)
May slightly reduce protein solubility
Cause some denaturation
Can inactive some enzymes
Improves digestibility of some proteins
Severe heat treatments (for example: >100°C)
Some sulfur amino acids are damaged
Deamination can occur
Release of hydrogen sulfide, etc (stinky)
Release of ammonia (stinky)
Very high temperatures (>180°C)
Some of the roasted smells that occur with peanuts or coffee
Enzymes
A quick review, since we
know the basics already
Enzyme Influencing Factors
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts
They are influenced in foods by:
Temperature
pH
Water activity
Ionic strength (ie. Salt concentrations)
Presence of other agents in solution
Metal chelators
Reducing agents
Other inhibitors
Also factors for
Inhibition, including:
Oxygen exclusion
and
Sulfites
Enzyme Influencing Factors
Temperature-dependence of enzymes
Every enzyme has an optimal temperature for maximal
activity
The rate/effectiveness of an enzyme: Enzyme activity
For most enzymes, it is 30-40°C
Many enzymes denature >45°C
Each enzyme is different, and vary by isozymes
Often an enzyme is at is maximal activity just before it
denatures at its maximum temperature
pH
Like
temp, enzymes have an optimal pH where
they are maximally active
Generally between pH 4 and 8
with
Most
many exceptions
have a very narrow pH range where they
show activity.
This influences their selectivity and activity.
Water Activity
Enzymes need free water to operate
Low Aw foods have very slow enzyme reactions
Ionic Strength
Some ions may be needed by active sites on the
protein
Ions
may be a link between the enzyme and substrate
Ions change the surface charge on the protein
Ions may block, inhibit, or remove an inhibitor
Others, enzyme-specific
Enzymes
Before a chemical reaction can occur, the activation energy (Ea)
barrier must be overcome
Enzymes are biological catalysts, so they increase the rate of a
reaction by lowering Ea
Enzymes
The effect of temperature is two-fold
From about 20, to 35-40°C (for enzymes)
From about 5-35°C for other reactions
Q10-Principal: For every 10°C increase in temperature, the reaction rate will
double
Not an absolute “law” in science, but a general “rule of thumb”
At higher temperatures, some enzymes are much more stable than
other enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes are sensitive to pH – most enzymes active only within a pH range of 34 units (catalase has max. activity between pH 3 & 10!)
The optimum pH depends on the nature of the enzyme and reflects the
environmental conditions in which enzyme is normally active:
Pepsin pH 2; Trypsin pH 8; Peroxidase pH 6
pH dependence is usually due to the presence of one or more charged AA at the
active site.
Nomenclature
Each enzyme can be described in 3 ways:
Trivial name: -amylase
Systematic name: -1,4-glucan-glucono-hydrolase
substrate
reaction
Number of the Enzyme Commission: E.C. 3.2.1.1
3- hydrolases (class)
2- glucosidase (sub-class)
1- hydrolyzing O-glycosidic bond (sub-sub-class)
1- specific enzyme
Enzyme Class Characterizations
1.
Oxidoreductase
Oxidation/reduction reactions
2.
Transferase
Transfer of one molecule to another (i.e. functional groups)
3.
Hydrolase
Catalyze bond breaking using water (ie. protease, lipase)
4.
Lyase
Catalyze the formation of double bonds, often in
dehydration reations
5.
Isomerase
Catalyze intramolecular rearrangement of molecules
6.
Ligase
Catalyze covalent attachment of two substrate molecules
1. OXIDOREDUCTASES
Oxidation
Is
Losing electrons
Reduction
Is
Gaining electrons
Electron acceptor
eXm+
reduced
Xm2+
e-
oxidized
Electron donor
Redox active (Transition) metals
(copper/ iron containing proteins)
1. Oxidoreductases: GLUCOSE OXIDASE
-D-glucose: oxygen oxidoreductase
Catalyzes oxidation of glucose to glucono- -lactone
-D-glucose
Glucose oxidase D glucono--lactone
FAD
H2O2
Catalase
FADH2
O2
+ H2 O
D Gluconic acid
H2O + ½ O2
Oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid
1. Oxidoreductases: Catalase
hydrogenperoxide: hydrogenperoxide oxidoreductase
Catalyzes conversion of 2 molecules of H2O2 into
water and O2:
H2O2 -------------------
H2O +1/2 O2
Uses H2O2
When coupled with glucose oxidase the net result is
uptake of ½ O2 per molecule of glucose
Occurs in MO, plants, animals
1. Oxidoreductases: PEROXIDASE (POD)
donor: hydrogenperoxide oxidoreductase
Iron-containing enzyme. Has a heme
prosthetic group
N
N
Fe
N
N
Thermo-resistant – denaturation at ~ 85oC
Since is thermoresistant - indicator of proper blanching
(no POD activity in blanched vegetables)
1. Oxidoreductases: POLYPHENOLOXIDASES (PPO)
Phenolases, PPO
Copper-containing enzyme
Oxidizes phenolic compounds to o-quinones:
Catalyze conversion of mono-phenols to o-diphenols
In all plants; high level in potato, mushrooms, apples, peaches,
bananas, tea leaves, coffee beans
Tea leaf tannins
Catechins
Procyanidins
Gallocatechins
Catechin gallates
PPO
O2
o-Quinone + H2O
Colored products
Action of PPO during tea fermentation; apple/banana browning
1. Oxidoreductases: LIPOXYGENASE
H
H
………
H
……..
C
C
C
C cis
cis
H
H
+ O2
H
H
H
C
H
C
C
C
cis
H
C
trans
……..
OOH
Oxidation of lipids with cis, cis groups to conjugated cis, trans hydroperoxides.
Enzymes !!!
We
have observed carbohydrate hydrolysis
Sucrose
into glu + fru
Starch into dextrins, maltose, and glucose
We
will observe lipid hydrolysis
Break-down
of fats and oils
Enzyme-derived changes
So….the
enzyme discussion is not over yet.
Enzymes !!!
We
have observed carbohydrate hydrolysis
Sucrose
into glu + fru
Starch into dextrins, maltose, and glucose
We
will observe lipid hydrolysis
Break-down
of fats and oils
Enzyme-derived changes
So….the
enzyme discussion is not over yet.
Worthington Enzyme Manual
http://www.worthingtonbiochem.com/index/manual.html
IUPAC-IUBMB-JCBN
http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme
Lipids
Lipids
Main functions of lipids in foods
Energy and maintain human health
Influence on food flavor
Fatty
acids impart flavor
Lipids carry flavors/nutrients
Influence on
Solids
food texture
or liquids at room temperature
Change with changing temperature
Participation in emulsions
Lipids
Lipids
are soluble in many organic solvents
Ethers
(n-alkanes)
Alcohols
Benzene
DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide)
They
are generally NOT soluble in water
C, H, O and sometimes P, N, S
Lipids
Neutral Lipids
Waxes
Long-chain alcohols (20+ carbons in length)
Cholesterol esters
Vitamin A esters
Vitamin D esters
Conjugated Lipids
Triacylglycerols
Phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids
“Derived” Lipids
Fatty acids, fatty alcohols/aldehydes, hydrocarbons
Fat-soluble vitamins
Lipids
Structure
Triglycerides or triacylglycerols
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids
>20 different fatty acids
Lipids 101-What are we talking about?
Fatty
acids- the building block of fats
A fat with no double bonds in it’s structure is said to
be “saturated” (with hydrogen)
Fats with double bonds are referred to as mono-, di-,
or tri- Unsaturated, referring to the number of
double bonds. Some fish oils may have 4 or 5
double bonds (polyunsat).
Fats are named based on carbon number and number
of double bonds (16:0, 16:1, 18:2 etc)
Lipids
liquid triacylglycerides “Oleins”
Fat- solid or semi-solid mixtures of crystalline
and liquid TAG’s “Stearins”
Lipid content, physical properties, and
preservation are all highly important areas for
food research, analysis, and product
development.
Many preservation and packaging schemes are
aimed at prevention of lipid oxidation.
Oil-
Nomenclature
The
first letter C represents Carbon
The number after C and before the colon
indicates the Number of Carbons
The letter after the colon shows the Number of
Double Bonds
·The letter n (or w) and the last number indicate
the Position of the Double Bonds
Saturated Fatty Acids
Mono-Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Lipids
Properties depend on structure
Length of fatty acids (# of carbons)
Short chains will be liquid, even if saturated (C4 to C10)
Position of fatty acids (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
Degree of unsaturation:
Double bonds tend to make them a liquid oil
Hydrogenation: tends to make a solid fat
Unsaturated fats oxidize faster
Preventing lipid oxidation is a constant battle in the
food industry
Lipids 101-What are we talking about?
Fatty
acid profile- quantitative determination of the
amount and type of fatty acids present following
hydrolysis.
To help orient ourselves, we start counting the
number of carbons starting with “1” at the
carboxylic acid end.
O
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
18
1
OH
Lipids 101-What are we talking about?
For
the “18-series” (18:0, 18:1, 18:2, 18:3) the
double bonds are usually located between carbons
6=7 9=10 12=13 15=16.
O
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
18
16 15 13 12 10 9
1
OH
Lipids 101-What are we talking about?
The
biomedical field entered the picture and ruined
what food scientists have been doing for years with
the OMEGA (w) system (or “n” fatty acids).
With this system, you count just the opposite.
Begin counting with the methyl end
Now the 15=16 double bond is a 3=4 double bond or
as the biomedical folks call it….an w-3 fatty acid
C
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
1
6 7
3 4
18
9 10
OH
Melting Points of Lipids
Tuning Fork Analogy-TAG’s
Envision a Triacylglyceride as a loosely-jointed E
Now, pick up the compound by the middle chain,
allowing the bottom chain to hang downward in a
straight line.
The top chain will then curve forward and form an
h
Thus the “tuning fork” shape
Fats will tilt and twist to this lowest free energy
level
Lipids
Lipids are categorized into two broad classes.
The first, simple lipids, upon hydrolysis, yield up to two types
of primary products, i.e., a glycerol molecule and fatty acid(s).
The other, complex lipids, yields three or more primary
hydrolysis products.
Most complex lipids are either glycerophospholipids, or
simply phospholipids
contain a polar phosphorus moiety and a glycerol backbone
or glycolipids, which contain a polar carbohydrate moiety
instead of phosphorus.
Lipids
Other types of lipids
Phospholipids
Structure similar to triacylglycerol
High in vegetable oil
Egg yolks
Act as emulsifiers
Fats and Oils…
can also be converted
to an emulsifier…
H
O
H
C
O C Fatty Acid Chain
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
Production of mono- and diglycerides H
Use
as Emulsifiers
Heat fat or oil to ~200°C
Add glycerol and alkali
Free Fatty Acids will be added to the glycerol
Fats and Oils: Processing
Extraction
Rendering
Pressing oilseeds
Solvent extraction
Soybean
Peanut
Rape Seed
Safflower
Sesame
Fats and Oils
Further Processing
Degumming
Refining/Neutralization
Oil
Refining
Remove free fatty acids (alkali +
water)
Bleaching
Remove phospholipids with water
Remove pigments (charcoal filters)
Deodorization
Remove off-odors (steam, vacuum)
Where Do We Get Fats and Oils?
Neutralization
Free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes exist in the crude oil
These may promote lipid oxidation and off-flavors
Removed by heating fats and adding caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or soda
ash (sodium carbonate).
Impurities settle to the bottom and are drawn off.
The refined oils are lighter in color, less viscous, and more susceptible to
oxidation.
Bleaching
The removal of color materials in the oil.
Heated oil can be treated with diatomaceous earth, activated carbon, or
activated clays.
Colored impurities include chlorophyll and carotenoids
Bleaching can promote lipid oxidation since some natural antioxidants are
removed.
Where Do We Get Fats and Oils?
Deodorization
Deodorization is the final step in the refining of oils.
Steam distillation under reduced pressure (vacuum).
Conducted at high temperatures of 235 - 250ºC.
Volatile compounds with undesirable odors and tastes
can be removed.
The resultant oil is referred to as "refined" and is ready
to be consumed.
About 0.01% citric acid may be added to inactivate prooxidant metals.
Where Do We Get Fats and Oils?
Rendering
Primarily for extracting oils from animal tissues.
Oil-bearing tissues are chopped into small pieces and
boiled in water.
The oil floats to the surface of the water and skimmed.
Water, carbohydrates, proteins, and phospholipids
remain in the aqueous phase and are removed from the
oil.
Degumming may be performed to remove excess
phospholipids.
Remaining proteins are often used as animal feeds or
fertilizers.
Where Do We Get Fats and Oils?
Mechanical Pressing
Mechanical pressing is often used to extract oil from
seeds and nuts with oil >50%.
Prior to pressing, seed kernels or meats are ground into
small sized to rupture cellular structures.
The coarse meal is then heated (optional) and pressed in
hydraulic or screw presses to extract the oil.
Olive oils is commonly cold pressed to get virgin or
extra virgin olive oil. It contains the least amount of
impurities and is often edible without further processing.
Some oilseeds are first pressed or placed into a screwpress to remove a large proportion of the oil before
solvent extraction.
Where Do We Get Fats and Oils?
Solvent Extraction
Organic solvents such as petroleum ether, hexane, and 2-propanol can be added
to ground or flaked oilseeds to recover oil.
The solvent is separated from the meal, and evaporated from the oil.
Neutralization
Free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes exist in the crude oil
These promote lipid oxidation and off-flavors
Removed by heating fats and adding caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or soda
ash (sodium carbonate).
Impurities settle to the bottom and are drawn off.
The refined oils are lighter in color, less viscous, and more susceptible to
oxidation.
Bleaching
The removal of color materials in the oil.
Heated oil can be treated with diatomaceous earth, activated carbon, or
activated clays.
Colored impurities include chlorophyll and carotenoids
Bleaching can promote lipid oxidation since some natural antioxidants are
removed.
Hydrogenating Vegetable oils can
produce trans-fats
H H
C C
Cis-
H
C C
Trans-
H
http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Regulation/Trans-fats-Partially-hydrogenated-oils-should-be-phasedout-in-months-not-years-says-expert-as-FDA-considers-revoking-their-GRAS-status
The cis- and trans- forms of a fatty acid
Lipid Oxidation
Effects of Lipid Oxidation
Flavor and Quality Loss
Nutritional Quality Loss
Rancid flavor
Alteration of color and texture
Decreased consumer acceptance
Financial loss
Oxidation of essential fatty acids
Loss of fat-soluble vitamins
Health Risks
Development of potentially toxic compounds
Development of coronary heart disease
Simplified scheme of lipoxidation
H H H H
H H H H
H H H H
R C C C C R
R C C C C R
R C C C C R
H
H
+ Catalyst
H
*
+ Oxygen
H
O
O
LIPID OXIDATION and Antioxidants
Fats are susceptible to hydrolyis (heat, acid, or lipase enzymes)
as well as oxidation. In each case, the end result can be
RANCIDITY.
For oxidative rancidity to occur, molecular oxygen from the
environment must interact with UNSATURATED fatty acids in
a food.
The product is called a peroxide radical, which can combine with
H to produce a hydroperoxide radical.
The chemical process of oxidative rancidity involves a series of
steps, typically referred to as:
Initiation
Propagation
Termination
Lipid Oxidation
Initiation of Lipid Oxidation
There must be a catalytic event that causes the initiation of
the oxidative process
Enzyme catalyzed
“Auto-oxidation”
Excited oxygen states (i.e singlet oxygen): 1O2
Triplet oxygen (ground state) has 2 unpaired electrons in the same spin in
different orbitals.
Singlet oxygen (excited state) has 2 unpaired electrons of opposite spin in the
same orbital.
Metal ion induced (iron, copper, etc)
Light
Heat
Free radicals
Pro-oxidants
Chlorophyll
Water activity
Considerations for Lipid Oxidation
Which
hydrogen will be lost from an unsaturated
fatty acid?
The longer the chain and the more double
bonds….the lower the energy needed.
Oleic acid
Radical Damage,
Hydrogen
Abstraction
Formation of a
Peroxyl Radical
Propagation Reactions
Initiation
Ground state oxygen
Hydroperoxide
decomposition
Peroxyl radical
Start all over again…
Hydroperoxide
New
Radical
Hydroxyl radical!!
Propagation of Lipid Oxidation
H H H H
H H H H
H H H H
R C C C C R
R C C C C R
R C C C C R
H
H
+ Catalyst
H
*
+ Oxygen
H
O
O
Termination of Lipid Oxidation
Although radicals can “meet” and terminate propagation
by sharing electrons….
The presence or addition of antioxidants is the best way in
a food system.
Antioxidants can donate an electron without becoming a
free radical itself.
Antioxidants and Lipid Oxidation
BHT – butylated hydroxytoluene
BHA – butylated hydroxyanisole
TBHQ – tertiary butylhydroquinone
Propyl gallate
Tocopherol – vitamin E
NDGA – nordihydroguaiaretic acid
Carotenoids
Physical Properties of Lipids
Fats and Oils
Melting and Texture
Think of a fat as a crystal, that when heated will
melt.
Length of fatty acid chain
Short
chains have low melting points
Oils
vs soft fats vs hard fats
Degree of unsaturation
Unsaturation
= presence of double bonds
Unsaturation = low melting point
Fats and Oils in Foods
SOLID FATS are made up of microscopic fat crystals. Many fats
are considered semi-solid, or “plastic”.
PLASTICITY is a term to describe a fat’s softness or the
temperature range over which it remains a solid.
Even a fat that appears liquid at room temperature contains a small number of
microscopic solid fat crystals suspended in the oil…..and vice versa
PLASTIC FATS are a 2 phase system:
Plasticity is a result of the ratio of solid to liquid components.
Solid phase (the fat crystals)
Liquid phase (the oil surrounding the crystals).
Plasticity ratio = volume of crystals / volume of oil
Measured by a ‘solid fat index’ or amount of solid fat or liquid oil in a lipid
As the temperature of a plastic fat increases the fat crystals melt
and the fat will soften and eventually turn to a liquid.
Shortening
Plastic range
Temperature range over which it is solid
(melting point)
Want a large plastic range for shortening
Want it to remain a solid at high temps.
Holding
air during baking
Frying Oils
Want a short plastic range
Liquid or low melting point
Do not want mono- or diglycerides or oil
will smoke when heated
Must be stable to oxidation, darkening
Methyl silicone may be added to help
reduce foaming
Fat and Oil: Further Processing
Winterizing
Cooling
a lipid to precipitate solid fat crystals
DIFFERENT from hydrogenation
Plasticizing
Modifying
fats by melting (heating) and solidifying
(cooling)
Tempering
Holding
the fat at a low temperature for several
hours to several days to alter fat crystal properties
(Fat will hold more air, emulsify better, and have
a more consistent melting point)
Fat Crystals: α, ß’, ß
The proportion of fat crystals to oil also depends on the melting points
of the crystals.
Most fats exhibit polymorphism, meaning they can exist in one of
several crystal forms. These crystal forms are 3-D arrangements.
Three primary crystal forms exist:
α-form (not very dense, lowest melting point), unstable
ß’-form (moderate density, moderate melting point), not as stable
ß-form (most dense, highest melting point), very stable
Rapid cooling of a heated fat will result in fine α crystals.
Slow cooling favors formation of the coarse ß crystals.
Fat crystals are easily observed when butter/shortening is melted and
allowed to re-solidify.
Fat Crystals in Commercial Oils
α, ß’, ß
Crystal forms are largely dependent on the fatty acid
composition of the lipid
Some fats will only solidify to the ß-form
Soybean, peanut, corn, olive, coconut, cocoa butter, etc
Other fats will harden to the ß’-form
Mono-acid lipids (3 of the same fatty acids)
Mixed lipids or heterogeneous lipids (different FA’s)
Cottonseed, palm, canola, milk fat, and beef tallow
ß’ forms are good for baked goods, where a high plastic
range is desired…..but...
Chocolate Bloom
In
chocolate (cocoa butter), the desired stable
crystal form is the ß-form
Processing involves conching (blending cocoa
and sugar to a super-fine particle) and
Tempering (heating/cooling steps).
Together, these give ß crystals to the final
chocolate
Fine chocolates control this well.
Chocolate
Making chocolate
The polymorphs of chocolate affect quality and keeping quality.
When making chocolate, the tempering process alters the fat crystals and
transforms to a predominance of ß-forms.
This process begins with the formation of some ß crystals as “seeds” from
which additional crystals form.
The chocolate is then heated to just below the temperature for ß-forms to melt
(thus melting all other forms), and allows the remaining fats to crystalize into
ß-forms upon cooling.
Chocolate Bloom
When chocolate has been heated and cooled, fat and sugar can rise to the
surface, and change crystalline state (fat) or crystallize (sugar).
When melted fat re-cools, less stable and lower melting point α crystals can
form.
The different crystals also physically look different (white, grey, etc) against
the brown background of the chocolate bar.