Transcript Chapter 20: New Frontier and the Great Society

Kennedy and the Cold War (2-9)
The New Frontier (Kennedy)
(10-15)
The Great Society (Lyndon B. Johnson)
(16-22)
 Mood of restlessness upon Eisenhower’s term ending
 Economy was in a recession, USSR launched Sputnik in 1957 and
developed long-range missiles increased American fears as our military
was falling behind, U-2 incident and alignment of Cuba with the Soviet
Union (were we losing the Cold War?)
 Democratic nominee = Massachusetts senator John Fitzgerald Kennedy vs.
Republican nominee = Vice President Richard Nixon
 Two things put Kennedy over the top: television and the civil rights
issue
 Positives: well-organized campaign, wealthy family backing, handsome, and
charismatic
 Negatives: young (43) and inexperienced, Roman Catholic (pope as an
influence in American policies, and closer ties between church and state)
 First televised debate between presidential candidates (started television age in
American politics)
 Nixon agreed in hopes of exposing Kennedy’s inexperience
 Kennedy was well coached by television producers and looked and spoke better
than Nixon
 Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. and 33 other African American
demonstrators were arrested for sitting at a segregated lunch counter in
Atlanta, Georgia (MLK was sentenced to hard labor)
 Eisenhower and Nixon didn’t intervene
 Kennedy called King’s wife and his brother, campaign manager,
Robert Kennedy persuaded the judge to release the civil rights
leader on bail, pending appeal.
 Captured immediate attention of the African American
community, which helped Kennedy carry key states in the
Midwest and South
 Set aside “the religious question” in favor of the civil rights question
 JFK becomes the 35th President
 Challenge to the American people: world is in “its hour of maximum
danger”, as Cold War tensions ran high – rather than shrinking danger,
the U.S. should confront the “iron tyranny” of communism.
 Put to the test when several Cold War crises tried his leadership…
 Kennedy won by fewer than 119,000 votes and set the
tone for a new White House era: grace, elegance, and
wit.
 The first family fascinated the public – his intelligence,
charm, and wit and Jacqueline’s eye for fashion and
culture.
 Regular American family, made it easier for voters to
think the president is like them and understand their
needs and interests (newspapers and magazines pushed
this image).
 Surrounded by a team of advisers that were considered “the
best and the brightest” (35-year old brother, Robert, was
appointed attorney general).
 Focused on the Cold War (Eisenhower
administration had not done enough – Soviets
gained power in less-developed third world
countries and communism developed in Cuba.
 Redefine the nation’s nuclear strategy – flexible
response: increased defense spending to boost
conventional military forces (nonnuclear forces such as
troops, ships, and artillery) and tripled the U.S.’s nuclear
capabilities.
 Enabled the U.S. to fight limited wars around the
world while maintaining a balance of nuclear power
with the Soviet Union.
 Eisenhower had cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba because of a
revolutionary leader, Fidel Castro, who openly declared himself a communist
and welcomed aid from the Soviet Union.
 Gained power with the promise of democracy; upon winning control
in 1959, he promised to eliminate poverty, inequality, and
dictatorship.
 BUT seized three American and British oil refineries, broke up
commercial farms into communes that would be worked by
formerly landless peasants.
 American sugar companies appealed to the U.S. Congress for help, and
Congress erected trade barriers against Cuban sugar.
 Relied on Soviet aid and politically repressed those who did not agree
with him
 Some Cubans followed suit while others saw Castro as a tyrant who had replaced one
dictatorship with another.
 10% of Cuba’s population went into exile (counterrevolutionary movement in Miami).
 1960 – Eisenhower gave the CIA permission to secretly train Cuban exiles for an
invasion of Cuba – over Castro (Kennedy learned of this shortly after his election and
with doubts, approved it).
CIA tried to make the invasion look like an autonomous Cuban operation with no U.S.
support – story unraveled (U.S. faced military and foreign relations disaster from which it
took years to recover). Created an opening for Khrushchev to send missiles to
Castro to defend Cuba and sent mixed signals to Khrushchev about U.S. resolve.
 Invading exiles were killed or imprisoned – Kennedy negotiated with Castro for the
release of surviving commandos and paid a ransom of $53 million in food and medical
supplies.
 Kennedy warned that he would resist further Communist expansion in the
Western Hemisphere, Castro defiantly welcomed further Soviet aid.
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1962 – flow to Cuba of Soviet weapons increased greatly (including nuclear missiles) –
America would not tolerate offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba.
Photos taken by American planes revealed Soviet missile bases in Cuba – some containing
missiles ready to launch. Kennedy informed the nation and his plans to remove them – any
missile attack from Cuba would trigger an all-out attack on the Soviet Union.
Nuclear Deterrence and mutually assured destruction – since each side could annihilate the
other, this assured destruction would keep each side from launching a first strike.
U.S. military prepared to quarantine Cuba and troops in Florida waited. Soviet ships stopped
suddenly to avoid a confrontation at sea (Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles in
return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba and the U.S. also secretly agreed to
remove missiles from Turkey)
Both leaders received criticism – Kennedy practicing Brinksmanship when private talks
may have resolved the crisis; passed an ideal chance to invade Cuba and oust Castro.
 Cubans blamed the Democrats for “losing Cuba” (a charge Kennedy had earlier
leveled at the Republicans) and switched their allegiance. Castro closed doors to
the exiles.
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 Confrontation over the construction of the Berlin Wall (a
concrete wall topped with barbed wire that severed the city
in two).
 Since the Berlin Airlift (11 years prior), many East Germans
fled to West Berlin because it was free from Communist
rule, weakened that country’s economy.
 Khrushchev threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany
that would enable that country to close all the access roads to
West Berlin – Kennedy refused to give up U.S. access (“great
testing of Western courage and will”)
 Kennedy’s determination and America’s superior
nuclear striking power prevented Khrushchev from
closing the air and land routes between West Berlin and
West Germany. Instead they constructed the Berlin
Wall, separating East Germany from West Germany.
 Cold War peace from nuclear disaster
 Kennedy announced that the two nations
established a hotline between the White
House and Kremlin, enabling leaders of the
two countries to communicate at once should
another crisis arise.
 U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed to a Limited
Test Ban Treaty barring nuclear testing in the
atmosphere.
 Americans to be “new pioneers” and explore
“uncharted areas of science and space…unconquered
pockets of ignorance and prejudice, unanswered
questions of poverty and surplus.”
 Difficulty making it a reality because he could not
gather enough votes from Congress – conservative
coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats who
blocked Truman’s Fair Deal.
 Medical care for the aged, rebuild blighted urban areas, aid
education
 Lacked a popular mandate (a clear indication that voters
approved of his plans), so he played it safe politically.
 Persuaded Congress to boost the economy, build the
national defense, provide international aid, and fund a
massive space program.
 By 1960 America was in a recession – moderate slowdown of the
economy marked by increased unemployment and reduced personal
consumption (people worried about job security).
 Decline in consumer spending, which sets in motion a chain of
events that slows business further. Reductions in consumer
spending lead to increased inventories, employee layoffs, and
further decline in consumer confidence.
 Kennedy criticized the Eisenhower administration for failing to
stimulate economic growth (lagging behind other Western
democracies and the Soviet Union).
 Advisors pushed for the use of deficit spending – stimulating
economic growth depended on increased government spending
and lower taxes
 20% budget increase for the Department of Defense for new nuclear
missiles, nuclear submarines, and an expansion of the armed services.
 Increased minimum wage to $1.25/hour, extended unemployment
insurance, and provided assistance to cities with high unemployment.
 Peace Corps – program of volunteer assistance to the developing
nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (“enough know-how and
knowledgeable people to help those nations help themselves”). Under
the direction of his brother-in-law, R. Sargent Shriver.
 “Kennedy’s Kiddie Korps” – many volunteers were just out of
college and could Americans understand other cultures?
 Agricultural advisors, teachers, or health aides or to do whatever
work the host country needed.
 Alliance for Progress – offered economic and technical assistance
to Latin American countries
 1961-69 the U.S. invested almost $12 billion in Latin America, in
part to deter these countries from picking up Fidel Castro’s
revolutionary ideas.
 Michael Harrington’s The Other America brought to national attention the
problem of poverty in America – the number of poor shocked many
Americans.
 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space and
Kennedy saw this as a challenge, so he decided America would be the
first to send a man to the moon.
 Duplicated the Soviet’s feat, communications satellite (Telstar) relayed
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live television pictures across the Atlantic Ocean from Maine to
Europe, NASA began constructing launch facilities and a mission
control center.
July 20, 1969, U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong took his first steps on the
moon.
Universities expanded their science programs – huge federal funding
for research and development gave rise to new industries and new
technologies, many used in business, industry, and consumer goods.
Space and defense-related industries sprang up in the Southern and
Western states (where program centers are located).
Technology developed for the space program greatly influenced the
scientific community, the civilian economy, and American life –
computer chips, medical, telecommunications, and aviation advances’
freeze-dried foods and instant beverages.
 Fight against segregation took hold as demonstrators raised their
voices in some extremely controversial civil rights battles in the 1960s.
 Kennedy did not push aggressively for legislation on the
issues of poverty and civil rights, although he effected many
changes by executive action… but he felt now it was time for
action.
 In 1963 he began to focus on more issues at home – “national
assault on the causes of poverty”, ordered Robert
Kennedy’s Justice Department to investigate racial
injustices in the South, and presented Congress with a
sweeping civil rights bill and a proposal to cut taxes by over
$10 billion.
 Kennedy’s civil rights bill was block in Congress by conservative southern
Democrats.
 1963 March on Washington by civil rights organizations to urge the
passage of the measure – 250,000 Americans of all races showed their
support, including Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., who gave his memorable “I
Have A Dream” speech.
 Tragedy in Dallas – losing popularity because of his advocacy of civil rights, yet
most still supported him.
The President and Mrs. Kennedy went to Texas to mend political fences with members of
the state’s Democratic Party.
 Car approached a building known as the Texas School Book Depository, when rifle shots
rang out, and Kennedy was shot in the head.
 People reacted in disbelief – who had killed the president and why? What
would happen next?
 Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson took the oath of office aboard the
presidential airplane.
 Dallas police charge Lee Harvey Oswald with murder- palm print on the rifle.
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24-year old ex-marine had a suspicious past – dishonorable discharge, briefly lived in the Soviet
Union, and supported Castro.
 When he was being transferred between jails, a nightclub owner, Jack Ruby, broke through and
shot Oswald.
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 All work stopped for Kennedy’s funeral – the assassination and funeral became
a historic event.
 Was Oswald part of a conspiracy (illegal political action)? The Warren Commission
investigated and concluded that Oswald had shot the president while acting on his
own.
 Reinvestigation concluded that Oswald was part of a conspiracy – two persons may
have fired at Kennedy, plots from anti-Castro Cubans, Communist-sponsored attack,
CIA conspiracy.
 Proved our system of government is remarkably sturdy – smooth transition to the
presidency of Lyndon Johnson.
Fourth-generation Texan who grew up without great wealth, but never missed a meal.
 Teaching degree from Southwest Texas State Teachers College in 1930 – financing his own
education
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 1934 he became the director of the National Youth Administration (New Deal
agency) – pushed hard for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act as
president (signing it into law in 1965)
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Entered politics in 1937, winning a special election to fill a vacant seat in the U.S.
House of Representatives.
 “New Dealer”; supported small ranchers and struggling farmers
 FDR helped him secure key committee assignments in Congress and
steer much-needed electrification and water projects to Johnson’s
district – Johnson imitated his leadership style.
 1948 he won the Democratic primary election for the Senate
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Master of party politics and behind the scenes maneuvering, becoming Senate majority
leader in 1955 – ability to persuade senators to support his bills (LBJ treatment)
 Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, a voting rights measure that was the first
civil rights legislation since Reconstruction.
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Johnson’s congressional connections and his Southern Protestant background
compensated for Kennedy’s own drawbacks as a candidate – making Johnson Kennedy’s
running mate (helping him win key states in the South, especially Texas).
 Kennedy had inspired Americans to begin to solve national and world
problems. Johnson urged Congress to pass the civil rights and tax-cut bills
that Kennedy had sent to Capitol Hill.
 1964 Congress passed a tax reduction of over $10 billion into law, which
spurred economic growth as people spent more leading to profitable
businesses, increasing tax revenues and lowering the federal budget deficit.
 Civil Rights Act of 1964 – prohibiting discrimination based on race, religion,
national origin, and sex and granting the federal government new powers to
enforce its provisions.
 Alleviate poverty, declaring “unconditional war on poverty in America” and
proposed legislation designed to help Americans “on the outskirts of hope.”
 Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) in 1964 - $1 billion for youth programs,
antipoverty measures, small-business loans, and job training (many remain
a part of government services), creating:
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Job Corps Youth Training Program
VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America)
Project Head Start – education program for underprivileged preschoolers
Community Action Program – encouraged poor people to participate in public-works
programs
 Republicans nominated Senator Barry Goldwater in 1964 to oppose
Johnson.
 Federal government had no business trying to fight social and
economic wrongs – poverty, discrimination, and lack of
opportunity.
 Attacked Social Security, wanting to make it voluntary, and the
Tennessee Valley Authority, which he wanted to sell.
 Most Americans believed the government could and should help
solve the nation’s problems.
 Goldwater frightened many by suggesting the use of nuclear
weapons on Cuba and North Vietnam (Communist leader Ho
Chi Minh had taken over North Vietnam).
 Johnson assured that sending U.S. troops to Vietnam “would
offer no solution at all to the real problem of Vietnam.”
 LBJ won the election by a landslide and the Democrats
increased their majority in Congress – allowing him to
launch reform programs.
 A legislative program that would end poverty and racial
injustice, create a higher standard of living and equal
opportunity, while also promoting a richer quality of life
for all. 206 of his measures would be passed while he was in
the White House (p. 690 chart).
 Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided more
than $1 billion in federal aid to help public and parochial schools
purchase textbooks and new library materials.
 Education = “key to unlocking the door to the Great Society”
 Congress changed Social Security by establishing Medicare (hospital
insurance and low-cost medical insurance for almost every American
65+) and Medicaid (extending health insurance to welfare recipients).
 Medicare is partially funded by Social Security taxes; Medicaid is
funded by the federal government and the states.
 Medicare = hospitalization, nursing-home and skilled-nursing care,
and home health care.
 Pressure of rising health care costs coupled with the aging of the
population has put pressure on Medicare and Medicaid funding
 Appropriating money to build some 240,000 units of low-rent public
housing and helping low-and moderate-income families pay for better
private housing; Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) – administer federal housing programs.
 Immigration Act of 1965 opened the door for many non-European
immigrants to settle in the United States by ending quotas based on
nationality (Immigration Act of 1924 and the National Origins Act of
1924 established quotas and discriminated strongly against nonWestern European groups).
 Great boost to the number of non-European immigrants
(Hispanic/Asian-Americans)
 Water Quality Act of 1965 – required states to clean up rivers; ordered
the government to search out the worst chemical polluters.
 Convinced Congress to pass major safety laws, including a truth-inpackaging law that set standards for labeling consumer goods.
Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 – precautionary standards for food.
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Liberal reform also took hold in the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren
(took activist stance on leading issues of the day).
Warren Court: Brown v. Board of Education Topeka, Kansas (1954), banned statesanctioned prayer in public schools, declared state-required loyalty oaths
unconstitutional, limited the power of communities to censor books and films, free speech
included wearing antiwar articles of clothing.
 Reapportionment – way in which states redraw election districts based on the changing
number of people in them.
 Many states failed to change their congressional districts to reflect the development
shift of people moving to cities and suburbs, allowing voters in rural areas to have
more representation (power) than the greater population.
 Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964) – shift of political power from rural to
urban areas.
 Rights of the Accused (based on constitutional principles of due process and the
assumption of innocence until proven guilty): Mapp v. Ohio (1961); Gideon v. Wainwright
(1963); Escobedo v. Illinois (1964); Miranda v. Arizona (1966).
 Liberals praised the decisions, arguing they placed necessary limits on police power
and protected the right of all citizens to a fair trial.
 Conservatives criticized the Court – benefited criminal suspects and severely limited
the power of the police to investigate crimes.
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Republican candidates in the 60s and 70s seized on the “crime issue”, portraying liberals and
Democrats as being soft on crime.
 No president in the post-World War II era extended the power
and reach of the federal government more than Lyndon Johnson,
which fueled and activist era in all three branches of
government.
 “War on Poverty” did help, although many proposals were hastily
conceived and proved difficult to accomplish.
 Massive tax cut spurred the economy
 Funding the Great Society contributed to a growing budget
deficit – continuing for decades
 Conservative backlash began as questions about government
finances, as well as debates over the effectiveness of these
programs and the role of the federal government, left people
disillusioned.
 Increase of Communist forces in Vietnam began to overshadow the
goals of the Great Society
 Johnson, who was a peace candidate in 1964, became a war
supporter (hawk) - Vietnam.