Transcript IB Psychology Methodology Syllabus

Markbands for Paper 3
 The question is answered in a focused and effective
manner and meets the demands of the command
term. The answer is supported by appropriate and
accurate knowledge and understanding of qualitative
research methodology. The response demonstrates a
critical understanding of qualitative research
methodology applied to the stimulus material.
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Quantitative methods demonstrate a systematic
approach to the investigation of behaviour. Some
aspects of behaviour are not suitable for
investigation by quantitative methods and
therefore qualitative methods must be used.
In some cases the distinction between qualitative
and quantitative approaches is difficult to
determine. In Likert scales the same responses of
participants can be used as either qualitative or
quantitative data.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Methods
Strengths
Limitations
To what extent can
findings be generalized
from qualitative studies?
Ethics
• Responsibility to the profession of psychology (including
the school environment)
•
Acknowledgment of others’ work and publications
•
Honesty in reporting results
• Competence of the investigator
• Personal conduct of the investigator
• Informed consent
• Respect for participant integrity
• Justification for using deception
• Participant’s right of withdrawal
• Confidentiality of findings
• Debriefing
• Use of non-human animals in research
• Discuss sampling techniques
appropriate to qualitative
research (for example, purposive
sampling, snowball sampling).
 • Explain effects of participant expectations and
researcher bias in qualitative research.
 • Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative
research.
 • Explain the effect of triangulation on the
credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.
Triangulation
 A way to make sure there is enough evidence to make
valid claims. Triangulation shows the richness and
complexity of behavior by studying theories from
more than one standpoint. Cohen and Marion (2000)
define triangulation as “the use of two or more
methods of data collection in the study of some aspect
of human behavior”
There are four types of
Triangulation
 Data triangulation
 Investigator triangulation
 Theory triangulation
 Methodological triangulation
Data Triangulation
Involves using different times,
locations and participants
(individuals or groups).
Investigator triangulation
 One example of observer triangulation is when
different researchers study a topic independently
and find similar results. Another example is using
independent raters in content analysis research
and correlating inter-rater reliability
between the observations.
Theory triangulation
 Two or more theories are sometimes combined to
create a more comprehensive theory. The General
Aggression Model (GAM) (Anderson and Bushman,
2002) combines social learning theory with other
theories to create a more complex and realistic
portrayal of aggression.
Methodological triangulation
 This means that a theory is investigated using a variety
of experimental and non-experimental methods. The
multi- method approach stands in contrast to the
single-method approaches of some historical theorists.
Single method verification is limited.
 • Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.
Non-experimental Research
 Interviews
Observation
Case Study
Content Analysis
Interviews
Interviews
• Semi-structured
• Small-group interviews (focus groups)
• Narrative Interviews, (Conversational interviews)
Structured Interviews
 Structured interviews collect data with a pre-
determined scale, such as a Likert scale.
Structured interviews have several advantages.
Structured interviews are more objectively
verifiable. The researcher needs less training to
administer them. Interviewer bias from
emotional involvement is less likely. A
disadvantage of structured surveys is that they
lack the richness of less structured interview
formats.
Semi-structured Interviews. Semi-structured
interviews are also referred to as “structured but
open-ended”. There is a fixed set of questions to
ask but replies are “open-ended”. Subjects say
anything they wish to the questions.
Unstructured Interviews. In an informal interview
the interviewer has a set of topics to follow and
perhaps some specifically worded questions to ask.
The interview is conducted as a friendly, natural
conversation. Another style is the informal
interview with no set questions and topics to cover.
Narrative interviews
These interviews are conducted informally, without a
fill list of pre-determined questions. The responses of
the interviewer depend on what the subject says. This
style of interviewing lends itself to narrative analysis.
The non-structured format of the conversational
interview style is a weakness. These interviews have no
control to them and a subject can easily take over the
interview if the researcher is inexperienced. One
advantage is that subjects may feel willing to report
more information than they would in a structured
interview. It is a potential breach of ethics to gather
information in a conversational style if participants are
not informed that they are taking part in a study.
Small group interviews
(focus groups)
Focus groups allow for discussion between group
members, which can generate a substantial amount of
data. Group interaction often stimulates ideas that are
missed in one-to-one interviews. A focus group might
involve the families of mental health patients. The
family members answer questions and generate ideas
about the best way to deliver services to patients.
 • Discuss considerations involved before, during and
after an interview (for example, sampling method, data
recording, traditional versus postmodern transcription,
debriefing).
Considerations involved before an
Interview
• Training for an Interviewer
• Interviewers should be good listeners, logical
thinkers, curious, interested, respectful of others, and
they should have good memories. The best interviewer
has good rapport with participants and “displays a
sense of tranquility which is accompanied by a feeling
of being comfort able with the interviewee and the
situation” (Legard et al., 2003, p. 143).
 The interviewer should learn as much as he or she can
about the language and culture of participants.
 Good interview questions and probes are developed.
For example, interviewers should ask clear questions,
avoid double-barreled questions (where two things are
asked at the same time), and avoid leading questions.
 Details of scheduling interviews are considered. How
long will the interview last? Where should it be held?
Is the setting for the interview safe for the participant
and the researcher? How will data be recorded?
Should anyone else be allowed to attend?
There are two things to consider about recording the
interview. If the researcher stops taking notes, is this
sending a message to the participant that his or
comments are unimportant? If video-recording
equipment is used, to what extent is it dominating the
room?
Considerations involved during an
interview
 The interviewer must create and maintain good
relationships with participants.
 Ethical issues are considered. Participants give
consent, are guaranteed confidentiality, and are
allowed to change their opinion at any time or even to
end their participation.
 Throughout the interview, the researcher must be
aware of the fine line between showing empathy and
becoming overly involved with participants. An
empathetic position is best, which involves probing to
find out more about the participant’s position and
feelings.
• The researcher may need to manage sensitive issues in
two areas.
• First, the topic may be sensitive. The researcher may
need to lessen a participant’s embarrassment or unease
with empathy, such as saying, “I know this is difficult,
but could you tell me . . . ?“
• Second, a participant may show a strong emotional
response, such as anxiety or anger.
• A researcher should not take it personally if a
participant becomes upset or angry
considerations involved after an
interview
 The researcher must ensure that the end of the
interview goes smoothly. Participants should feel that
their help is appreciated, should have information
about finding out the results of the study, and should
have information about how to withdraw data if
desired.
 Researchers must decide how to transcribe data.
 There are two choices, verbatim transcription
(traditional transcription), where the exact words are
transcribed and nothing else, and postmodern
transcription which includes important nonverbal
communications, such as voice tone, posture, and
pauses.
There are two ways that interviews
are transcribed.
Traditional
Researchers record the exact spoken words of subjects.
It is quicker than the post-modern approach.
Traditional transcription does not take into account
the subtle and often important non-verbal
communications, such as voice tone, posture, and
pauses.
Post-modern
This style records words and pauses, along with the “um’s”.
This gives richness to traditional transcription. The
researcher decides before the study which of the subtle
non-verbal messages to record, such voice tone, posture,
and pauses. The entire interview is recorded, not just the
surface words. There are some potential weaknesses to the
post-modern approach. It is desirable to have high interrater reliability between the transcriptions of independent
raters. Interviews must also be transcribed soon after data
is collected so researchers do not forget the subtleties
observed in the interviews.
 Researchers must code it into thematic categories.
 More on content analysis to come!
(How exciting is that!?)
 Write a report on your results!
 Done!
Qualitative Content Analysis
 Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis
(thematic analysis) on interview transcripts.
Step One
 Get familiar with the content.
 Watch the movie, TV, Etc.
 Read the book, paper, magazine, Etc.
 Study the content whatever it may be
Step Two
 If the content is not written it needs to be transcribed
 Which method are you going to use?
Step Three
 Identify and list the raw data themes
 Put them in a list and try to identify
categories of the main idea of each
Item
 These are sometimes very broad categories if the
information is diverse, or they may be more specific if
the information is not so diverse.
 They important thing is to reduce the data to a
manageable quantity of information.
Step Four
 Take one sentence from each raw data theme. These
are the Higher Order Themes
Step Five
 Write a few paragraphs on your interpretation of the
data.
 You may need a paragraph for each of your higher order
themes if you are analyzing something big. All
information that is necessary for the accurate
presentation of the data should be recorded.
 There may be some creativity in the interpretation of the
data. What do you think is important, what do you think
it really means. This interpretation will make your data
less objective.
That’s It!
 You would want to reread your work to be sure that it
accurately reflects your content. Rereading or rewatching the content with your interpretation in hand
would probably be a good idea.
 You may be able to condense it down further
Interviewing has some advantages
1. Interviewing provides highly detailed information if
the interviewer is well trained. Well-trained
interviewers gather considerable information in follow
up questions using a conversational style.
2. Interviewing allows subjects to clarify questions.
Written surveys do not allow for clarification.
Disadvantages to interviewing
1. Instrumentation is a potential problem if the
researcher is inexperienced.
2. Experimenter bias is a potential problem.
Interviewers need a great deal of training.
3. Sometimes the cost and logistics of travel is
problematic, especially if the interviewer tries to
collect data from a wide range of subjects.
4. Studies using interviewers typically have limited
samples, unless an email approach is used.
5. Subject variables are unknown.
Observation Research
 Observation is used in experimental and non-
experimental research. Non- experimental naturalistic
observation research comes in two forms. One
quantifies results with descriptive statistics
(structured observation) and the other uses
narration for analysis (non-structured observation).
 You need to know Qualitative, or non-structured
observation
1
 Find out what topic you want to research and gather
background evidence
2 - Develop a rough research question
3 - Do bibliographic research
4 - Rephrase research question
5 - Create specific criteria for what you are going to look
for when conducting the observation
6 - Determine if data will be quantitative or qualitative
7 - Determine the means of observation (covert, overt,
participant, etc.)
8 - Determine the appropriate location for the
observation
9
 Reflexivity and avoiding bias
10
 Approach sample depending on what means of
observation you are using. You may need the help of a
“Gatekeeper”.
11 - Conduct observation
12 - Record data related to the research question and
other possible relevant factors. You may not know
what is relavant at the time, and you may notice
patterns late or even after the observations are
complete so you should use “Thick Descriptions” and
take great notes
13
 Analyze data
14
 You may have interviews with key participants after
the observations are complete.
15
 Have others check your data and question your
conclusions
16 - Write report and if possible compare them to past
observations
17 - Debrief participants
18 - Publish results
Hawthorne effect
When subjects alter their behavior because they know they
are being studied, is controlled only when researchers are
participant-observers. The Hawthorne effect occurs in all
obtrusive forms of research. Obtrusive methods include
experiments, surveys, and all other methods where the
person knows they are studied. Observations in the natural
setting where subjects are unaware they are being studied
are ethical only if there is no manipulation of the
environment and subjects are unidentifiable in the results.
Can you think of
any examples?
Turnbull – What you see is what you learned
Pygmy Study
Parts of both Bandura and Zimbardo’s Experiments used
observation, but they were experiments, not
observational studies.
Case studies
 Case studies follow the history and/or treatment of an
individual or documents group behavior. Case studies
are in-depth and focused.
 • Evaluate the use of case studies in research.
 • Explain how a case study could be used to investigate
a problem in an organization or group (for example, a
football team, a school, a family).
 • Discuss the extent to which findings can be
generalized from a single case study.
Poor external validity, meaning that the results are
difficult to generalize to other persons or situations, is
the greatest weakness of case studies.