Transcript Religion and belief are some of the oldest concepts in the

The Mind,
Consciousness,
and Perception:
The Neuroscience
of Belief
•
Religion and belief are some of the oldest concepts in the history of mankind. Ever since we
began to live together in families, small communities and cultures, we welcomed religion into
our lives. Religion helped us function in a society by uniting us and also helped us understand
the world around us. “Religion has the hallmarks of an evolved behavior, meaning that it
exists because it was favored by natural selection. It is universal because it was wired into our
neural circuitry before the ancestral human population dispersed from its African homeland.”
As to why we believed, and still do, in gods, spirits, the Devil, ghosts and so on, is simple. Man
has always questioned everything. Today we are asking why do we believe in irrational
concepts like religion or the supernatural, just as ancient civilizations centuries ago asked
questions like why do we have a sun? Why do people die, and even why do we have fire?
Religious beliefs stemmed from our natural curiosity about the world. People relied on myths
and stories about supernatural entities and immortal gods to create order in our all too
chaotic world. People, even today, like reason because it is comforting. Nobody wants to
believe that a devastating tornado is entirely random and without purpose, especially since
that presents the inevitable possibility that it can and will, without warning, happen again.
They like to hear instead that the tornado was the result of a dissatisfied god and it is easily
preventable through the simple medium or offerings and prayer. Therefore in ancient times
the unexplained was simply explained through religion and the supernatural. As our
civilizations made more and more scientific breakthroughs and learned more about the
natural world, some religions and gods became obsolete. Questions still remain and religious
reassurance still plays a large part in our societies today. Rather than answering why there is
day and night, beliefs these days tend to try to answer harder questions like what is the
meaning of life, why are here and what happens after we die (Wade).
• Roger Darlington argues that “beliefs that lack reason and rationality and
are supported by very little or no evidence” are categorized as “weird
things.” His philosophy is that in regards to concepts like heaven, hell,
prayer, alien abduction, clairvoyance and the like, “there is no evidence of
any of these things, so I do not believe in them.” While this is perfectly
rational to say, belief is not that simple. Despite lacking conclusive
evidence, people do still believe in these ‘weird things.’ Our religions and
beliefs, or lack thereof, are based on thousands of years of history and
culture. Belief is not simply a question of evidence or logic; it is a question
of one’s upbringing, social conditioning, ancestry and countless other
factors. There are numerous psychological and societal reasons behind
why someone would be more inclined to trust in a god for salvation, or in
a psychic for their fortune, but even further beyond that is another field of
science, called neurotheology, which has begun to search even deeper as
to why we believe at all. Neurotheology looks directly at the correlation
between religion, belief and our brains. In other words, why our brain
allows us to believe in ‘weird things’ (Darlington).
•
Evolutionary biologist Lionel Tiger believes that “Religion is really made by the brain. It
is a secretion of the brain.” Tiger believes that our brains create religious belief in order
to experience that ‘secretion’- or serotonin- which creates a feeling of well-being in the
believer’s brain. Tiger has connected the social aspects of religion with the generation
of serotonin. “Attending a religious service, for example, can be a flurry of social activity
and controlled procedure, which releases a cocktail of serotonin-led neurotransmitters
in the brain” (Cookson). The social aspects of religion have also been linked to activity in
the frontal lobes. Neurotheologists and other scientists have been trying to pinpoint the
exact neural area in which religious belief is controlled- referred to as the “God spot.”
Research has found that there is not however, just one single area that pertains to
religious belief, but several areas spread out around a neural network comprised of the
frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. “Religious belief and behavior are a hallmark of
human life, with no accepted animal equivalence, and found in all cultures,” says Jordan
Grafman, a professor from the U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and
Stroke, in Bethesda, Maryland. “Our results are unique in demonstrating that specific
components of religious belief are mediated by well-known brain networks, and they
support contemporary psychological theories that ground religious belief within
evolutionary-adaptive cognitive functions” (“Belief and the Brain’s God Spot”). These
neural ‘god spots’ would have been developed during our evolution, suggest some
evolutionary theorists, as natural selection may have favored those with religious
convictions as they could have been able to overcome hardships better, over those
without who maybe have been overwhelmed without a guiding power to trust in. In
other words, those who were religious were more likely to survive and pass on our
brain’s knack for belief (Cookson, “Belief and the Brain’s God Spot”).
•
Some argue that there is no ‘god spot,’ however, and that there are instead certain
areas that deal with belief in general, religious or not. A study found in the journal
‘Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences’ analyzed the brains of subjects
using a ‘magnetic-resonance imaging machine’ to find the most energetic areas of
the brain. Participants were asked to think about various moral and religious
questions and problems. The study found that people with varying religious
background and atheists alike, all tended to engage the same neural circuits to
answer an ethical dilemma, and the same pathways were also used when religious
people were asked to consider issues concerning God. From this study scientists
were able to find that there are numerous areas in the brain which are connected
to religious belief. One of these is found exclusively in humans and is located in the
cortex’s frontal lobes, and another was found in the more ancient areas developed
during evolution, further inside the brain, which is also found in apes and other
primates. Grafman says “There is nothing unique about religious belief in these
brain structures. Religion doesn’t have a ‘God spot’ as such; instead it’s embedded
in a whole range of other belief systems that we use every day.” Neuroimaging has
also shown that the same regions of our brains that are more active when a
Christian rejects an idea contrary to their beliefs (like God is a myth) are the same
regions that become more active when an atheist affirms his belief in a similar
statement. In other words, whether or not you argue that God is real or God is not
real, your brain is using the same region to generate those beliefs (“Belief and the
Brain’s God Spot”).
• Nevertheless, many experiments have been done to try to locate a
neural religious center. Early studies lead some scientists to the
brain’s temporal lobe because patients suffering from seizures and
epilepsy in this region often reported having intense religious
experiences. Vilayanur Ramachandran of the University of
California, San Diego, asked several volunteers with temporal-lobe
epilepsy to listen to various words; sexual, neutral, and religious. He
measured their levels of arousal and emotional reaction and found
that sexual words and neutral words registered low and normal
levels, respectively, while religious words resulted in an unusually
high response in the patients. Another experiment involved a
helmet, named the “God-Helmet,” which neuroscientist Michael
Persinger would place on the head of a subject which the helmet
generates weak complex magnetic fields to stimulate the temporal
lobes. Persinger reported that many subjects reported experiencing
mystical and altered states and sensing a strange presence nearby.
He reported that at least 80% of his subjects experienced a
presence with them in the room and about one percent identified
this presence as God (“This Is Your Brain On Religion”).
•
From their experiences one can hypothesize that spiritual feelings and God are the
subjective experience of a strange kind of brain function. "One could try to
conclude one way or the other that maybe it’s the biology or maybe God's really in
the room, but the scan itself doesn't really show that," neurotheologist Andrew
Newberg says. "For neurotheology to really work as a field it needs to be very
respectful and open to both perspectives." Other studies done on Buddhist
meditators suggested that another region involved with religious belief, in
particular prayer giving the impression that one is in a higher plane of existence,
were the parietal lobes located in the upper back region of the brain. Andrew
Newberg, of the University of Pennsylvania studied how the brain reacted during
intense meditation by injecting his subjects like a radioactive isotope as they
reached a state of nirvana through their meditation. With a special camera he
could observe the dispersal of the substance which led him to identify the parietal
lobes as a key part of experiencing a transcendental state – or nirvana. Decreased
activity in the parietal lobes has also been linked to some religious experiences as
well. Another study published in February observed the levels of spiritual beliefs
and behavior in patients before and after brain surgery. Researchers found that
some specific sites in the brain affected religiosity in patients when damaged. In
particular, damage to the parietal lobe altered what are usually relatively stable
levels of spirituality and behavior. This suggested that the brain and changes within
due to neurological or mental disorders may be a cause of altered levels of
spiritual and religious behavior (“This Is Your Brain On Religion”).
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Some scientists have even researched if there is a genetic reason for whether or
not people are inclined to believe in religion or the supernatural. Geneticist Dean
Hamer claims to have found a single gene VMAT2 (the Vesicular Monoamine
transporter 2) – a God gene – which he identifies as “a leading gene among many
others written into our genetic code that predisposes people to religiosity.” Hamer
sought to identify the specific genes connected with self-transcendence –
essentially a measure of how spiritual one is – by analyzing DNA and personality
scores from more than 1000 subjects and eventually narrowed his search down to
one gene, VMAT2. VMAT2 works to regulate the levels of serotonin, dopamine,
and norepinephrine in our brains, and in turn can create some of the feelings
some associate with spiritual experiences, like feeling the presence of God or
experiencing a mystic state of mind. Hamer also hypothesized that the reason this
gene was passed down through evolution is because self-transcendence increases
optimism in humans which makes us more healthy and inclined to reproduce
more. Again this supports the idea that evolution and the survival of the fittest
resulted in our brain’s inclination to be religious, whether it stems from the idea
that those who were religious were more likely to survive, or if it stems from a
neurological drive in us for inclusion and social living. For this gene to be passed
down it is suggested that spiritual humans were favored by natural selection,
perhaps because they displayed a higher sense of optimism than others, an
optimism which encouraged survival and the urge to live (Cookson).
•
According to Sharon Begley, neurotheologists, neurobiologists, and evolutionary
psychologists have arrived at a general consensus that both religious faith and also fringe
beliefs such as the belief in psychics, ghosts, aliens and astrology etc. “arise from the same
mental processes that underlie everyday reasoning and perception.” Some minds are more
susceptible to believing in the supernatural, as somebody whose mind is open and more
likely to rely on emotions like hope and despair rather than on evidence would be quicker to
trust an assumption rather than evidence of an actual occurrence. For example in 1854 Sir
Roger Tichborne, son of Lady Tichborne, went missing on the coast of Brazil. Twelve years
later an imposter from Australia claimed to be her son and Lady Tichborne happily believed
him, granting him £1000 each year despite the fact the fact that the imposter bore no
resemblance to her missing son. While Sir Roger had been thin, tattooed with blue eyes the
imposter was the opposite. Additionally the imposter had a birthmark on his chest which Sir
Roger did not. Lawsuits later claimed that the man was indeed an imposter as the evidence
clearly showed. However the reason that Lady Tichborne wholeheartedly accepted this man
was her son is for similar reasons as to why we believe in the supernatural. Contrary to
popular belief the brain does not construct reality starting with perception. The brain’s
sensory regions like vision are overridden by other systems like processes that deal with our
emotions and attention. When our attention is not engaged instead of paying close attention
to what we see, images that reach our retina and continue through to the visual cortex don’t
continue on to be processed and examined by our brain. So in Lady Tichborne’s, and many
other cases, our brain doesn’t focus on important details and we effectively blind ourselves,
just like people who are described as being ‘blinded by faith.’ Neuroimaging shows that
additionally our senses can be overridden by our cognitive and emotional brain regions
constantly being in communication. In some situations this will heighten our perception such
as when we are scared, our hearing is sharpened. However this effect can override our
senses as well, making it easier to believe something which is usually unbelievable (“Why We
Believe”).
• Historically people tend to become more
superstitious and more likely to believe in the
paranormal such as ESP and astrology in times of
anxiety and distress. Bruce Hood, psychology
researcher at University of Bristol, says, “In the
absence of perceived control people become
susceptible to detecting patterns in an effort to
regain some sense of organization.” Studies show
that recently, people who were asked to
remember a time when they lacked control in a
situation picked up on more patterns in random
sounds and saw more conspiracies in stories that
they were shown than other subjects
(“Why We Believe”).
•
Our brains don’t just allow us to believe in religion or the supernatural, they encourage us.
Blurring our perceptions is but one part of how our brain ‘tricks’ us into thinking without
evidence. Our brain also aids in out of body experiences and religious epiphanies. In our
superior parietal lobe, a region close to the top and back of the brain, there is a bundle of
neurons that essentially helps us distinguish where our body ends and the physical world
starts. Usually this features as a way for us to navigate our bodies through a building or street
without walking into things. When it’s not needed though, the frontal lobes will send out a
signal which turns this structure off. This usually occurs when we are falling asleep or when
somebody is having sexual intercourse. This explains the disorientation or strange things that
some may feel when they are sleeping. Brain imaging has also shown that people who
partake in heavy meditation and prayer this structure is oddly quiet. The feeling of holiness
and connectedness is caused by the fact that your mind cannot find the division between the
self and the world. The wholeness people experience when this state is linked with religious
practices or even alien abductions will encourage and strengthen their belief. Other brain
functions can be ‘tricked’ into making you feel something strange. The eyes and ears alone
cannot interpret everything they see or hear respectively. In such cases the brain will fill in
the missing blanks, just like in optical illusions. The brain’s urge to see what is not objectively
there can lead to other ‘visions’ and paranormal interpretations. Just like the brain completes
an optical illusion, the brain will also complete the image of Satan in some smoke, or the
image of Jesus on a piece of toast, or more recently the image of a face in an ultrasound.
“Perceptually, the world is chronically ambiguous and requires an interpretation,” says
anthropology professor Stewart Guthrie at Fordham University. According to Mark Reinecke,
professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Northwestern University, when we see
strange, paranormal images in a normal situation we are just “using our existing cognitive
structures to make sense of an ambiguous or amorphous stimuli” (“Why We Believe”).
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While it may seem bizarre how convinced people are of these supernatural occurrences and
visions, when you ‘see’ something weird, your brain treats it just as it would treat literally seeing
something. Brain imaging illustrates how the neural areas activated when people imagine
something seen or heard are the exact same regions that are activated when you actually do see or
hear something in reality. This occurs in people suffering from schizophrenia when they hallucinate
as well, and in normal people who think of mental imagery. Even if what you see is not there, your
brain treats whatever you are imagining as real as seeing a tree or hearing a song. Your brain even
creates patterns of strange experiences and coincidences to convince you that something
‘otherworldly’ is going on. Your brain remembers more clearly all the times that for instance, you
thought about somebody who then suddenly calls you, yet it ignores all the times that doesn’t
happen. When this happens it is called confirmatory bias which is when your brain remembers
events and experiences better that confirm our beliefs, rather than what contradict our beliefs.
Confirmatory bias occurs now thanks to evolution and survival. When the mind evolved if we failed
to make a connection, like that rattlesnakes are dangerous, or touching fire hurts, we could get
killed. Rather than remember all the times that a rattlesnake didn’t hurt us, our brain reminded us
of events like that to help us survive. This evolutionary trait helps explain why our brain so
voluntarily lets us believe that a bump in the night is an axe-wielding serial killer, or a shadowy
figure in the darkness is a blood-thirsty ghost. Our brain is wired to associate even inanimate
objects with danger because when we were evolving it was safer to assume that a big rock was a
bear, because if you instead decided the rock was a rock, yet it turned out to be a bear, you would
be dead. The brain was developed to avoid danger therefore we developed a ‘hypersensitive
agency-detection device.’ HADD (for short) is an acute sensitivity to other living ‘agents’ around us,
in other words we are so aware of living ‘agents’ around us that often we perceive something
inanimate as being alive. According to Dr. Steve Novella, “Psychologists and neuroscientists in
recent years have demonstrated that our brains are hardwired to distinguish things in our
environment that are alive from those that are not alive… We can perceive agency in non-living
things if they are acting as if they are agents.” Therefore viewing something as a possible ghost or
spirit is just a branch off of our hypersensitivity (“Why do we believe in the supernatural? A
neurological explanation”).
• Research from various fields of science has shown that our brain is
simply hard-wired to encourage us to believe in religion or the
supernatural. Evolution has developed our brains with a
predisposition for belief in order to protect us. While neurotheology
does continue to find more answers as to why our brains believe
what they do, it is not a field out to prove or disprove the existence
of the supernatural or of a god. "For those individuals who want to
go down the path of arguing that all of our religious and spiritual
experiences are nothing more than biological phenomena, some of
this data does support that kind of a conclusion," Andrew Newberg
says. "But the data also does not specifically eliminate the notion
that there is a religious or spiritual or divine presence in the world."
More and more technology and research is becoming possible so
that we can one day completely understand how our brains work
and exactly where and why our brains make the distinction of what
is real and what is not – evidence or none (“This is Your Brain on
Religion”).
Works Cited
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