Transcript Reform and Political Crisis in Late 18th Century Europe

The French Revolution
The Enlightened Despots
Frederick the Great
– “first servant of the state.”
Catherine the Great
– Did little actual reform
Joseph II of Austria
– Most extensive reformer.
– Religious toleration and
state control.
– Agrarian reform (abolished
serfdom)
Political Tension in Western Europe
Three social estates
– First Estate - clergy
– Second Estate - nobility
– Third Estate - bourgeoisie, workers, peasants,
poor.
Absolutism reduced power of assemblies
(Estates General in France had not met
since 1614).
Conflict between monarchies and
aristocracies developed (particularly in
Austrian and Dutch Netherlands) and spread
to the commoners.
Political Turmoil in Britain
King George III
attempted to “buy”
Parliamentary influence.
Gov’t persecution of
John Wilkes and other
cause backlash.
Calls for reform came
from all classes of
society.
Rebellion in America
British moved to have costs of American
defense paid by colonists.
Colonists wanted to defend their rights as
British subjects - “no taxation without rep.”
Theories of popular sovereignty and
natural rights along with fluid social system
allowed for broad revolution to succeed.
First successful colonial rebellion.
France – The Ancien Régime
Louis XV (r. 1715-74)
– Cardinal Fleury chief
minister (1726-43)
– French state faced
major financial
problems.
– Bureaucracy
inefficient.
– Nobility began to
demand more rights
France – The Ancien Régime
Louis XVI (r. 1774-92)
– Attempted to make
financial reforms.
– Appointed Jacques Turgot
financial minister.
Cut spending – hurt some.
– Jacques Necker takes his
place as financial minister.
Increases spending –
problems continue.
1789 - Causes of the Revolution
Financial crisis gripped France.
Inept leadership of Louis XVI.
Inequity in French economic, political and
social system (taxation of third estate).
Growing size and power of the
bourgeoisie.
Influence of Enlightenment ideas.
Bad weather (little ice age) and resulting
crop shortages and famine.
The Estates General
Called by Louis XVI to meet (at the urging
of Necker) in July 1788.
Elections gave 300 seats each to First and
Second Estates, 600 to Third Estate.
Bad harvest brought greater criticism.
Aristocracy demands to constitutional
monarchy, bourgeoisie wanted to end
mercantilism and noble privileges ,
peasants want end to manorialism.
May 5, 1789 they meet and vote by order.
The National Assembly
June 17, 1789 – Third Estate declares
itself the National Assembly and invited
other estates to join.
June 20th, Third Estate locked out; they
meet on handball court and declare the
Tennis Court Oath.
Louis XVI opposes, but relents and asks
other two estates to meet with Assembly.
Assembly controlled by middle class and
liberal nobility.
Storming of the Bastille
Rumors spread that the King
is organizing troops.
On July 11th, he dismissed
Necker (later rehired).
July 14th, mob storms the
Bastille, symbol of despotic
Bourbon rule.
Necker is restored to power
and the Marquis de Lafayette
becomes commander of the
National Guard.
The Great Fear
Nobility begin to flee France in great
numbers in the summer of 1789.
Revolutionary fervor spreads among the
peasants.
Famine and riots spread across the
countryside.
On August 4, National Assembly ended
manorialism and privileges of the nobility.
Declaration of the Rights of Man
August 27th 1789 – Assembly
approved Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen
– Provided freedom of speech
and press.
– Freedom of assembly and
petition.
– Freedom of religion.
– Freedom from arbitrary arrest.
– Embraced the doctrine of
popular sovereignty.
The Women's March to Versailles
Autumn of 1789, rumors
persisted of a plan by
the king to use military
force.
On the night of Oct. 5-6,
mob of mostly women
marched to Versailles to
protest the lack of bread.
Royal family moved to
Tuileries Palace in Paris
Political Clubs
Jacobins
– Moderate faction that became more radical;
supporting the end of the monarchy and
establishment of a republic. Maximilien
Robespierre was the most famous member
Cordeliers
– Radical faction (support end of monarchy).
Leading figures included Georges-Jacques
Danton and Jean-Paul Marat
Feuillants
– More conservative, supported constitutional
monarchy.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Nov. 1789 – to deal with financial crisis,
Assembly confiscated all Church lands.
Assembly then issued paper money
(assignats) using land as security, but it
quickly lost value.
Assembly passed Civil Constitution of
the Clergy on July 12, 1790.
– Bishops and priests were elected by people.
– Needed to swear allegiance to Assembly.
– Over half refused to do so, became
opponents of the revolution.
The Constitution of 1791
Necker loses favor with the Assembly and
resigns in Dec. 1790.
On June 20, 1791 Royal family attempts to
flee that country, but is caught at Varennes
and retuned to the capital.
On Sept. 14, 1791 the king accepted the
constitution creating a constitutional
monarchy.
Legislative Assembly was created as the
legislative branch.
Reforms of the National Assembly
Abolished the titles of nobility and the
parlements which they dominated.
Created elected courts and juries.
Ended torture.
Reorganized local government into the 83
Departments.
Followed laissez-faire economic policies
by abolishing guilds and mercantilism.
Created fairer tax system.
Legislative Assembly, 1791-1792
Dominated by middle class, but more radical
than National Assembly.
King vetoed many measures.
New Factions Emerge:
– Jacobins: political club that dominated Legislative
Assembly
– Girondins: radical Jacobins who were advanced
party of the revolution and brought the country to war.
– The Mountain: political group, whose members,
called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in
the Assembly.
International Opposition
Declaration of Pillnitz, August, 1791: issued by
Prussia and Austria – Attempt to protect royals.
Èmigrès: French nobles who fled France sought
support of foreign countries.
Emperor Leopold II declared he would restore
gov’t of France if other powers joined him; really
a bluff
French revolutionaries took Leopold at his word
and prepared for war.
War of the First Coalition
Legislative Assembly declared war in April, 1792
Austrian armies defeated French armies but
divisions over eastern Europe saved France
Brunswick Manifesto: Prussia & Austria would
destroy Paris if royal family harmed
Battle of Valmy, Sept. 20, 1792: Prussian
invasion stopped; moral victory for Convention
Battle of Jemappes: first major victory for
France; took Austrian Netherlands
But war turned against France by Spring 1793
The Second Revolution Begins
Revolutionary
sentiment in the
Assembly led by
Robespierre, Danton,
and Marat
King’s palace stormed
at Tuileries on Aug. 1o
1792, Swiss Guards
killed; king taken
prisoner.
Monarchy outlawed.
Revolutionaries attempt to
make the king wear the red
hat at the Tuileries Palace.
Paris Commune
Revolutionary municipal gov’t set up in Paris,
which usurped powers of the Legislative
Assembly
Led by Georges-Jacques Danton
Legislative Assembly suspended 1791
constitution
September Massacres (led by Paris Commune)
Rumors of aristocratic and clerical conspiracy
with foreign invaders led to
massacre of over 1,000 priests, bourgeoisie,
and aristocrats
National Convention, 1792-1795
France proclaimed a republic,
September 21, 1792
Equality, Liberty, Fraternity!
Two factions emerged:
– The Mountain: radical republicans
(Jacobins); urban class (Danton,
Robespierre, Marat)
– Girondins: more moderate faction;
represented countryside
sans-culottes (“without breeches”):
(not part of National Convention)
– working-class; extreme radical
– kept revolution moving forward: stormed
Bastille, march to Versailles, driving king from
Tuleries, September Massacres
National Convention - Leaders
Maximilien Robespierre
– Rose through strength of
character and speech.
– Became increasingly radical.
Georges-Jacques Danton
– Rose to power through Paris
Commune
– Became Mister of Justice
Jean-Paul Marat
– Voice of the Revolution
– Radical, became martyr figure.
Danton
National Convention, 1792-1795
Louis XVI beheaded January,
1793
Jacques Roux: demanded
radical political action to
guarantee bread
Mountain ousts Girondins, May
1793: urged to do so by sansculottes
Enragès, radical working-class
group (even more than sansculottes) seized and arrested
Mountain members in the
Convention
Charlotte Corday, member of
Girondins, kills Marat (martyr)
The Death of Marat, by Jacques-Louis David
National Convention - Reforms
Slavery abolished in the French colonies.
Primogeniture abolished.
Metric system enacted.
Estates of émigré nobility sold to peasants.
Military draft instituted and civilian control
confirmed.
New calendar enacted – Sept. 22, 1792 day
one, year one of French Republic. Calendar
had 12 months named after seasons, 10 day
weeks.
Committee of Public Safety
Formed in April 6, 1793
as executive emergency
gov’t by the National
Convention.
Maximilien
Robespierre is its
primary leader.
Responsible for
beginning the Terror.
Robespierre
The Reign of Terror (1793-94)
Law of Suspects: Created Revolutionary Tribunals
at the local level to hear cases of accused enemies
brought to “justice”
guillotine: created as an instrument of mercy.
Queen Marie Antoinette beheaded
Many Girondins executed in September, 1793
Vendèe: region in western France that opposed
revolution; many executed
Danton and followers executed in 1794
Overall 16,000 victims.
Cult of the Supreme Being: deistic naturalist
religion imposed by Robespierre; Catholics now
opposed.