Transcript Households,Families and Forms of Living in Europe
Households, Families and Forms of Living in Europe Franz Rothenbacher
Übung für Fortgeschrittene
„Empirisch-vergleichende Sozialstrukturstrukturanalyse Europas“
2006
1. Basic concepts and definitions 2. Theories of household and family change 3. From the extended to the nuclear family 4. The dominance of the nuclear family 5. The myth of the isolated nuclear family 6. Non-standard family forms 7. European territorial patterns 8. The influence of family law, tax law and family and employment policies 9. Literature
1. Basic concepts and definitions
• Household • Statistical definition • Household dwelling concept and housekeeping unit concept: one-person-households, family households, institutional households Economic definition • Household as an economic unit not producing for the market: home production, household production; non-monetarized products and services Sociological definition Household as a social system consisting of different subsystems: different relationships between parents and children; but as well other subsystems as relatives and non-family members • Family • Statistical definition Family household as a specific type of a household related by bonds of blood and not only by common residence
• Sociological definition Family as an institution (E. Durkheim; legal point of view) Family as a social group (group consciousness) Family as a set of personal relationships, familial subsystems (analytical perspective: husband – wife, mother – children, father – children, grandparents – grandchildren) • Forms of living (cohabiting couples) • Statistical definition • Two one-person households living at the same address: number of cohabitations statistically constructed; they are not counted Sociological definition Form of partnership which often are functional equivalents to marriages and families and often precede a marriage Form of partnership which often follows a marriage, promoted by legal family regulations like e.g. maintenance rules, payment of social benefits, etc.
2. Theories of household and family change
• The „law of contraction“ (Kontraktionsgesetz) by E. Durkheim • This „law“ is based on inheritance and property rules (Code Civil) and ethnography. The evolutionary contraction of the family starts from a wide political-residential grouping, the amorph exogamous clan, proceeds to the differentiated family clan (either differentiated according to female or male lineages), the undivided agnatic family, the patriarchalistic Roman family and the Germanic „father family“ to the family of the spouses of today.
• The „theory of functional differentiation“ (Durkheim, Parsons, Luhmann): „Ausdifferenzierung der privatisierten modernen Kernfamilie“ (Tyrell, Meyer) • See next sheet.
• The „pluralization of forms of private life“ (Zapf) • Modernization and post-modernization of the family causes the emergence of different family types: the nuclear family, lone parents, cohabitation, couples without children, same-sex couples etc.
• The „process of individualization“ (Beck) • This hypothesis states that with the coming of post-modernity the family as a social group and institution will be subdivided into their parts or subsystems.
Indicators for this process are: growth of people living single; lone parents; successive monogamy; children only have emotional benefits and no more economic ones; the idea of continuation of the family lineage or family tradition disappears
3. From the extended to the nuclear family
• • • • Extended family was the dominant model in history only in normative, but not in quantitative terms. Principle of shared property, but only one heir of the family property Quantitatively the nuclear family dominated. Causes: Low life expectancy which made a family of 3 generations a seldom phenomenon; principle of neolocality and shared property transfer The extended family died out in the sense of living together under one roof • • Indicators: • Mean household size (private, all) • Proportion of one person households Proportion of households with 5+ persons Proportion of extended households
Mean private household size, Germany (Empire and Federal Republic) 1871-1982
5,5 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 total selfemployed employees workers without profession
Mean family household size, Germany (Empire and Federal Republic)
5,5 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 total selfemployed employees workers without profession
Mean private household size, Prussia
5,5 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Pussia, state Prussia, towns 20,000+ inhabitants Prussia, towns Prussia, country
Family households with non-family members, Germany 1861-1970
70 60 50
%
40 30 20 10 0 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 German Empire Federal Republic of Germany Breslau Frankfurt Leipzig 1910 1920 1930 Prussia Berlin Dresden Hamburg München 1940 1950 1960 1970
Family households with non-family members, Germany
%
40 30 20 10 70 60 50 0 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Berlin Leipzig Breslau München Dresden Frankfurt Hamburg
Family households with non-family members, Germany 1910-70
70 60 50 40
%
30 20 10 0 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 German Empire Federal Republic of Germany Prussia Logarithmisch (Prussia)
Proportion of relatives to household members in Europe 1850–1940 (%)
1
Country
Austrian Republic Greece Hungarian Empire/
1850
.. .. ..
1860
.. .. ..
1870
.. .. ..
1880
.. .. 7.60
5
1890
.. .. 6.44
5
1900
.. .. 6.86
5
1910
6.61
2 .. ..
1920
.. .. ..
1930
7.35
3 .. ..
1940
11.40
.. 4 .. Kingdom Ireland/Irish Republic Luxemburg 13.97
6 .. .. .. .. .. 15.34
6 .. 11.10
6 .. 14.20
6 3.78
7 17.11
2.68
6 8 .. .. .. .. .. .. Norway Poland Sweden Switzerland .. – .. .. .. – .. .. .. – .. .. .. – .. .. .. – .. .. 1.21
9 – .. .. .. – .. .. 5.50
.. 11.00
10 .. 13 6.39
.. .. 2.97
11 13 3.52
.. .. 12 .. 1 For all other countries dealt with in this volume data are not available. 2 Other family members. 3 1934 Other family members. 4 1951 Other parents of family household heads. 5 Others (parents, servants). 6 Male and female visitors (includes relatives). 7 1905 Other persons. 8 Other persons. 9 Sons- and daughters-in-law, grandsons and granddaughters, parents. 10 Near and remote parents. 11 Others. 12 1935 Other household members. 13 Parents, parents-in-law and other relatives of household head. Sources: Country chapters of this volume.
Decline in mean private household size in Europe, 1950–2000
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark
1950
3.11
1 2.98
6 3.33 3.14 3.96 3.14
1960
3.02
2 3.00
2 3.09
2 2.95
2 3.48
2 2.90
1965
.. .. .. .. .. 2.80
1970
2.90
3 2.95 2.94 2.78 3.36 2.74
1975
.. .. .. .. .. ..
1980
2.70
4 2.70
4 2.75 2.64 2.99 2.59
1985
.. .. .. .. .. 2.37
1990
2.54
5 2.49
5 2.64
5 2.53
5 2.87
5 2.27
1995
.. .. .. .. .. 2.21
2000
.. .. .. .. .. 2.19 Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece 3.11
4.11
.. 7 .. 2.99 2.69 1 3.34 3.11
2.88
3.78
8 .. 2 .. 2 2.70 2.50
.. .. .. 13 .. 2.99 3.06
2.74 2.64
3.39
9 .. 3 3 2.73 2.88 .. 2.60 .. .. 2.64 2.70
10 .. 2.48 2.53
4 3.12
4 2.56 .. .. 2.31 .. .. 2.42 2.57 2.27
5 2.25 2.38
5 2.97
5 .. .. 2.22 2.20 .. .. 2.18
.. .. 11 2.17
11 2.19
11 .. Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg 3.79 3.97
3.57
.. 1 6 3.10 3.89 3.97
2 3.63
2 3.21 4.01
3.16
.. .. 15 .. 15 2.95 3.94
3.35
.. 3 3 3.07 3.76
.. .. 16 .. .. 2.79 3.27
4 3.84
4 3.01
2.79
4 4 3.53
.. .. 17 .. .. 2.60 3.34
.. 5 2,83 5 2.62
5 2.85
3.14
.. 14 18 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal 3.68
6 3.22 .. 4.08 3.59 3.25 3.53 3.72 3.45 .. .. .. 3.21 3.27 3.39 3.67 2.95 .. .. .. 2.78 2.94 3.11
19 3.35
4 3.53
4 2.56 .. .. .. 2.41 2.66 3.10
20 3.12
5 3.26
5 2.32 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Spain 3.74 3.84 .. 3.84 .. .. .. .. Sweden 2.90 2.80 2.74 2.59 2.41 2.32 2.23 2.14 .. .. Switzerland United Kingdom Scotland 21 England and Wales .. 3.21
1 3.19
1 3.39
1 3.27 3.00
2 3.04
2 3.19
2 .. .. .. .. 2.93 2.49
3 2.49
3 2.46
3 .. .. .. .. 2.52 2.48
4 2.48
4 2.45
4 .. .. .. .. 2.33 2.45
5 2.46
5 2.42
5 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Northern Ireland 3.91
1 3.70
2 .. 3.49
3 .. 3.20
4 .. 2.93
5 .. .. Notes: 1 1951. 2 1961. 3 1971. 4 1981. 5 1991. 6 1947. 7 1946. 8 1962. 9 1968. 10 1982. 11 1999. 12 1956. 13 1964. 14 1993. 15 1966. 16 1979. 17 1986. 18 1996. 19 1978. 20 1988. 21 Great Britain. Sources: Country chapters of this volume.
Proportion of one-person households in Europe, 1945–2000 (in %)
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece Hungary
1945
18.61
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7 .. .. 19.39
13 .. ..
1950
17.50
1 15.83
6 10.84 12.45 5.78 13.79 18.50 19.13
8 .. 21.67 8.69
1
1960
19.67
2 16.80
2 14.22
2 16.04
2 9.27
2 19.78 21.53 19.60
9 .. 20.61 .. 10.14
2 14.51
1970
24.57
3 18.78 17.11 19.09 11.96 21.36 23.92 20.16
10 .. 25.13 25.98
3 11.33
3 17.48
1980
28.30
4 23.20
4 22.89 24.22 19.76 27.86 27.08 24.59
11 .. 30.20 26.55
4 14.60
4 19.65
1990
29.66
5 28.42
5 25.30
5 26.89
5 21.79
5 34.03 31.73 27.13 33.63
5 34.96 27.56
5 16.24
5 24.32
1995
.. .. .. .. .. 35.89 .. .. 34.90 35.91 30.41 .. ..
2000
.. .. .. .. .. 36.98 .. .. 35.68
12 36.32
12 32.86
12 .. .. Sources: Country chapters of this volume. .. Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden 10.39
.. 7 .. 8.80
6 9.21
6 17.67
7 .. .. .. 25.17 17.73 .. 9.51
1 .. .. 14.88 7.56 .. 20.69 13.17 12.62
10.65
2 2 11.50 12.42 14.22 16.24 10.77 6.61 21.87 14.15
12.90
15.73 17.03
.. 3 3 3 21.14 16.08 10.00 7.46 25.29 16.89
4 17.84
20.74
21.67
4 4 4 27.94 17.39
17 12.97
4 10.25
4 32.83 20.17
20.59
25.47
29.35
19 34.32 18.28
17 13.85
5 13.34
.. 5 5 5 5 39.57 21.53
.. 15 .. .. 32.47
14 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Switzerland United Kingdom Scotland 18 England and Wales Northern Ireland Notes: 1 1951. 2 1961. 3 1971. 4 1981. 17 1988. 18 Great Britain. 19 1989. .. .. .. .. 10.75
1 10.72
1 11.14
1 14.20 13.22
13.39
14.06
2 2 2 .. 9.34
1 5 1991. 6 1947. 7 1946. 11.49
2 8 1954. 19.64 26.14
3 25.96
3 27.86
3 29.00 25.64
25.47
27.32
4 4 4 32.38 26.64
26.46
28.41
5 5 5 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 14.95
3 18.68
4 22.62
5 .. .. 9 1962. 10 1968. 11 1982. 12 1999. 13 1956. 14 1993. 15 1996. 16 1978.
Proportion of households with five or more members in Europe, 1945–1995 (in %)
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain
1945
16.03
37.87
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7 .. .. .. .. .. .. 7 .. 25.10
6 28.61
6 20.41
7 .. .. ..
1950
18.16
1 14.91
6 20.79 16.40 34.66 17.77 28.31 19.08
8 .. 16.14 10.73 39.13
1 .. 33.78 .. 33.33
1 .. .. 20.26 .. 35.81 ..
1960
17.46
16.19
16.65
13.63
24.84
14.32
31.57
34.64
26.95
2 2 2 2 2 14.78 25.03 20.20
9 .. 2 .. 2 17.01 35.75 2 2 18.72 26.59 21.15 26.51 29.11 34.29
1965
13.37 35.2
18.0
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11.66 8.67
12 .. .. .. 14 .. 14 .. .. .. .. ..
1970
16.81
3 16.12 13.24 9.89 21.99 11.94 17.95 19.0
10 22.13
.. 12.91 10.59
3 3 14.03 .. 34.50
3 21.51
3 17.10 20.32
3 16.87 23.94 27.25 33.50
1975
32.5
.. .. .. .. .. .. 12.46 15.45 .. 10.60 .. .. .. .. 15 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1980
13.19
4 11.38
4 10.13 7.88 15.39 7.89 10.23 11.9
11 .. 8.77 6.58
4 16.49
4 10.50 .. 32.30
4 14.92
4 12.09
4 11.70
4 11.99 16.9
18 20.67
4 26.42
4 6.27
1985
6.04 8.97 6.25 30.1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16 .. .. 8.84 .. .. .. ..
1990
9.92
5 8.19
5 8.38
5 6.34
5 12.88
5 5.02 7.85 9.91 5.04
5 5.30 3.99
5 13.25
5 8.05 .. 26.53
5 10.30
5 9.35
5 7.64
21 8.25 17.1
19 15.37
5 19.83
5 5.24
1995
22.5
6.79
.. .. .. .. .. 4.95 .. .. 4.73 5.18 3.36 .. .. .. 17 .. .. 13 .. .. .. .. Sweden 13.39 Sources: Country chapters of this volume. 14.23 12.83 11.61 9.47 7.14 5.53 .. Switzerland United Kingdom 21 England and Wales .. .. .. 18 1978. 19 1988. 20 Great Britain. 21 1989. .. 17.77
1 17.33
1 21.22 17.27
2 15.46
2 .. .. .. 15.73 7.90
3 7.93
3 .. .. .. 9.13 7.81
4 7.84
4 .. .. .. 6.49 7.62
5 7.65
5 .. .. .. Scotland Northern Ireland .. .. 22.07
1 32.85
1 19.03
28.70
2 2 .. .. 7.61
25.95
3 3 .. .. 7.50
17.38
4 4 .. .. 7.30
18.86
5 5 .. .. Notes: 1 1951. 2 1961. 3 1971. 4 1981. 5 1991. 6 1947. 7 1946. 8 1954. 9 1962. 10 1968. 11 1982. 12 1964. 13 1993. 14 1966. 15 1979. 16 1986. 17 1996.
4. The dominance of the nuclear family
• • • • • • • Decline of extended family sytems Universalization of marriage until the 1960s Predominance of the nuclear family until the 1960s • • Deinstitutionalization of marriage since the 1960s Nuclear family looses importance since the 1980s • Childless couples rising Number of children per family declining Number of siblings declining Lone parents increasing Shift in family values to post-materialistic values: • • • Acceptance of divorce and abortion rising Family model in contrast to reality Perception of obliagtions between the generations declining • Child orientation declining
Private households by type and size, Federal Republic of Germany 1950–1997 a (in 1,000 and % distributions) 1950 1957 1961 1972 1980 1990 1991 a 1997 a
Private households by type Non-family households b
One-person households: male under 25 male 25–64 male 65 and over female under 25 female 25–64 female 65 and over Multi-person households
Family households
Households with couple: without unmarried children without other persons with other persons with unmarried children without other persons with other persons Lone parents with unmarried children: mother with children mother with children and other persons father with children father with children and other persons Multi-family households c
—
19.4 — — — — — — —
—
— — — — — — — — — — — — —
Household type unknown
—
Total private households 100.0 —
18.3 0.9 2.8 1.4 0.5 6.9 5.8 —
81.7
70.5 23.8 — — 46.8 — — 11.2 10.0 — 1.1 — — —
100.0 —
20.6 1.2 3.8 1.4 0.8 7.0 6.3 —
79.9
69.3 23.8 — — 45.6 — — 10.5 9.5 — 1.1 — — —
100.0 —
26.2 1.2 4.5 1.9 1.1 8.0 9.6 —
72.9
66.6 24.7 22.5 0.5 41.9 40.5 1.1 6.4 5.5 — 0.8 — —
— 100.0 —
30.2 1.5 5.6 2.2 1.6 7.0 12.4 —
67.5
61.2 23.8 22.4 0.3 37.5 36.6 0.6 6.3 5.3 — 1.0 — —
— 100.0 —
35.0 1.9 9.5 1.9 2.0 8.1 11.7 —
60.8
54.3 23.2 22.4 0.2 31.2 30.1 0.4 6.5 5.4 — 1.0 — —
— 100.0 —
33.6 1.6 8.9 1.9 1.6 7.8 11.8 —
62.5
55.3 23.8 23.1 0.2 31.5 30.5 0.4 7.2 6.1 — 1.1 — —
— 100.0 —
35.4 1.3 10.9 2.3 1.4 8.4 11.2 —
60.4
52.4 24.9 24.2 0.2 27.5 26.7 0.3 8.0 6.1 — 1.4 — —
— 100.0 Private households by size (in %)
1 person 19.4 2 persons 3 persons 4 persons 25.3 23.0 16.2 5+ persons 16.1
Total private households 100.0
18.3 26.7 23.0 16.7 15.3
100.0
21.6 26.5 22.6 16.0 14.3
100.0
26.2 27.9 18.9 15.0 12.0
100.0
30.2 28.7 17.7 14.6 8.8
100.0
35.0 30.2 16.7 12.8 5.3
100.0
33.6 30.8 17.1 13.5 5.0
100.0
35.4 32.6 15.3 12.1 4.6
100.0 Private households (in 1,000)
16,650 18,318 19,460 22,994 24,811 28,175 35,256 37,457 a 1991 and 1997 unified country. b Households without family nucleus, i.e., married couple or single parent with children. c Households with more than one family nucleus.
Sources
: Population censuses 1950–61; Microcensuses 1972–97.
Children in families, Federal Republic of Germany 1961–1996 (in 1,000 and % distributions)
Children by family type
Children in couple families
1 child 2 children 3 children 4 children 5+ children
Children with lone mothers
1 child 2 children 3+ children
Children with lone fathers
1 child 2 children 3+ children
Total children in families (%)
1961
84.6
20.8 29.5 17.9 16.4 x
13.9
6.2 4.3 3.4
1.5
0.7 0.5 0.4 1970 1980
88.8
19.3 31.1 19.6 18.9 x
9.5
4.5 2.5 2.5
1.7
0.7 0.5 0.5
88.1
20.3 35.7 19.2 13.0 x
10.0
4.5 3.0 2.5
1.9
0.9 0.6 0.4 1990
85.9
23.6 38.8 16.0 7.5 x
11.9
6.2 3.9 1.8
2.2
1.3 0.7 0.3 1996
85.2
32.6 35.4 11.8 3.5 1.9
12.1
7.1 3.3 1.5
2.7
1.9 0.7 -
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Children in couple families Children with lone mothers Children with lone fathers Total children in families 2,737 305 1,961 362 x = included in 4 children in couple families.
Sources
: Population censuses 1961–70. Microcensuses 1980–96. in 1,000 16,658 18,369 17,280 15,061 1,970 363 2,095 383 19,700 20,692 19,613 17,539 1,892 268 61 2,221
Proportion of the population in private households living in a nuclear family
a Country Denmark Sweden Finland Norway United Kingdom Ireland Germany b France Belgium The Netherlands Luxembourg Austria Greece Italy Portugal Spain
* Source: Van Solinge/Wood 1997: 13. a Married couple with children. b In 1981 West Germany only. Not available.
% in nuclear family 1981
51.4 * * * 58.0 70.3 57.7 59.9 61.6 65.2 59.9 * * 70.2 68.9 72.2
1990/91
44.0 40.9 43.8 50.5 52.0 68.6 49.9 59.0 55.6 54.9 57.0 54.4 63.1 64.1 64.0 *
Couples with children as % of all families with children
%
100,0 90,0 80,0 70,0 60,0 50,0 40,0 30,0 20,0 10,0 0,0 B DK D GR E F IRL I L NL P UK SF N S CH USA CND 1981 1991
Children by number of siblings in international comparison
Country 0 % number of siblings 1 % 2 % 3+ % Canada (1986) Denmark (1985) Germany (1991)
15 30 31 43 52 45 27 15 17 15 3 7
Finland (1986) Greece (1986) Ireland (1981) Italy (1983) Norway (1989) Sweden (1986/87) Switzerland (1980) Czechoslovakia (1985)
26 24 6 20 25 25 25 20 46 50 17 45 46 49 47 51 20 19 22 22 29 26
a a
20 22 8 7 55 13 * * 8 7
U.S.A. (1986)
1994: 56. a two and more siblings
24 43 25 8
Source: Bundesministerium für Familie und Senioren (BMFuS)
Family attitudes, a West Germany 1981–83 and 1990 (in %) Attitude dimension 1981–83 1990
Divorce
d is justified is justified when love ceased
Abortion
is justified is justified when child is not wanted
Family model
child needs both parents single women can have children
Closeness of relationships
d respondents very close to mother respondents very close to father parents close to each other
Common attitudes
sharing with partner sharing with parents
Obligations between generations
parents must always be loved and respected parents must do the best for their children
Child orientation
a successful marriage needs children a woman needs children to be fulfilled West Germany Total average b 44.2 55.9 39.9 27.5 37.5 60.2 60.9 38.2 83.8 26.2 42.2 25.8 27.4 41.4 35.2 58.5 62.9 54.6
e 33.6 34.7
e 56.7
e 56.8
e 35.9
e 71.8
f 38.5 53.7 42.5 48.3 53.2
e 49.2
e Specific average c West Germany Total average b Specific average c 30.9 56.3 53.6 27.7 63.1 33.4 55.3 42.4 49.3 54.5 56.9 64.6 68.0 58.3 20.3 — — 57.5 30.9 94.1 23.6 — — — 42.0 32.3 61.8 53.5 43.5 43.9 — — 59.6 38.9 85.6 39.0 — — — 54.3 51.4 64.9 67.1 60.9 41.4 — — 54.9 31.8 75.3 36.9 — — — 60.9 58.4 70.6 72.3 63.7 22.1 a Sample: France, Britain, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Ireland, USA, Canada, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Finland. b Unweighted average of countries in sample. c Canada, United States, United Kingdom; unweighted average. d Not asked in 1990 survey. e Without Finland. f Without Hungary.
Source:
International Value Surveys 1981–83 and 1990/91.
5. The myth of the isolated nuclear family
• • • Thesis of Hans Bertram: The multilocal multi-generation family • Families are embedded in family networks • Although the nuclear family predominates, close local ties between the family members do exist • • Residence patterns as an indicator for family networks Indicators: Distance between the location of the house/flat Frequency of contacts
6. Non-standard family forms
• • • Childless couples respectively childess women Lone parents Cohabiting couples
Childless women by birth cohorts in selected European countries (in %)
Country Federal Republic of Germany Austria Switzerland France The Netherlands England and Wales Denmark Norway Sweden Birth cohort
1946/50 1941/45 1936/40 1945 1950 1950 ~1950 1949 1950
Proportion childless
18 15 10 8 14 15 13 11 13
Birth cohort Proportion
1951/55 1946/50 1951/55 1950/55 1955 1955 ~1955 1955 1955 Sources: Dorbritz/Schwarz 1996: 240; Höpflinger 1991: 81.
childless
21 17 18 11 20 18 18 13 15
Single men with children as % of all families with children
30,0 25,0 20,0
%
15,0 10,0 5,0 0,0 B DK D GR E F IRL I L NL P UK SF N S CH USA CND 1981 1991
Single women with children as % of all families with children
30,0 25,0 20,0
%
15,0 10,0 5,0 0,0 B DK D GR E F IRL I L NL P UK SF N S CH USA CND 1981 1991
Proportions of women cohabitating of all women in unions (marriages and cohabitations)
Country Sweden Great Britain Year 1975 1985 1980 1986 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-37 40 +
88 93 13 42 57 78 11 24
Age group
23 48 6 10
Denmark Finland The Netherlands Norway Switzerland 1976 1985 1980 1985 1980 1986 1977 1987 1980
84 88 67 75 n/a 59 - 83 38 48 75 37 50 21 37 21 59 23 17 41 14 25 8 16 6 23 8
Austria West Germany 1981 1989 1978** 1988** 1981
--20-- --45-- -
France* 1986 * UN Table 49 (plus notes) ** 18-25, 26-35, 36-55 (estimates) *** Age group 21-24 Source: Kierman 1993: 27
31 45 14 21 16 - 36*** 6 8 -- 4-- --11-- 6 14 10 28 2 7 10 20 10 12 4 7 2 8 4 4 4 2 10 6 17 3 4 5 10 8 7 2 4 2 5 3 3 3 -- 1-- -- 3-- - 6 4 12 2 4 7 7 7 7 2 3 1 5 2 3 2 5 -
Lone parent families in the European Union 1990/91
Country % lone parent families 1990/91 Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg The Netherlands Portugal United Kingdom Austria Finland
14.1 8.5 11.5 7.6 10.0 10.4 15.0 11.8 12.7 10.1 9.2 13.5 13.0 12.4
Sweden
8.5 Source: Ditch/Barnes/Bradshaw 1996: 9.
% lone parent families with children under 6 1990/91
14.9 13.5 14.3 3.2 - 8.3 8.8 - 10.5 11.2 6.1 19.2 13.4 10.3 14.1
% lone parent families with at least one child under 15 1990/91
14.6 20.4 15.4 5.7 6.0 10.8 10.7 - 12.3 12.2 9.0 19.0 - - -
7. European territorial patterns
• • • • „West European marriage pattern“ (John Hajnal). Indicators: late age at marriage and high celibacy rate „East European marriage pattern“ (John Hajnal). Indicators: early age at marriage and low celibacy rate • • Consequences: • higher fertility in Eastern Europe larger households and families in Eastern Europe Higher proportion of extended family systems in Eastern Europe, as e.g. the Zadruga on the Balkans Laterally and generationally extended family systems in Eastern Europe, but de facto dominance of the nuclear family in Western Europe
Celibacy rate High Low
Marriage patterns in Europe
Age at marriage High
(1) Nordic countries: Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark Continent: Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium (19th century) Outlier: Ireland (3) Spain (pre-1890 and post World War I) Greece (male marriage age) Portugal (intermediate country)
Low
(2) Italy Belgium (20th century) France Portugal (intermediate country) Spain (only 1890–1914) England and Wales Finland (to some extent) (4) Eastern Europe: Greece (partly) Poland Hungary Czechoslovakia Bulgaria, Romania, Baltic countries
Celibacy rate in Europe, 1950–2000 (women never married at age 45–54 in % of all women)
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom England/Wales Scotland Northern Ireland
1950
31.8 21.5 9.2 9.6 8.0 26.2 35.5 29.1 .. 27.0 10.0 5.0 8.2 21.8 35.9 26.7 14.7 22.6 30.4 .. 17.0 14.9 28.4 30.1 .. 24.1 30.5 33.1
1960
33.3 19.1 6.5 6.4 6.8 22.7 31.4 21.8 .. 31.4 10.0 5.8 7.3 20.1 31.4 24.6 12.2 19.8 22.8 9.1 15.8 14.0 21.9 26.3 .. 19.7 24.9 28.0 Note: The most proximate census years have been chosen for inclusion.
1970
27.9 16.9 5.1 4.6 6.0 20.9 27.2 20.0 .. 25.4 9.6 7.1 5.6 11.3 26.9 23.6 10.6 16.3 18.1 7.8 12.9 12.7 19.4 23.1 .. 16.4 21.0 15.4
1980
8.7 6.0 3.7 3.3 4.7 5.6 10.6 7.1 .. .. 6.5 6.7 4.2 .. 14.6 9.7 7.5 6.8 5.8 5.9 8.7 10.1 6.9 11.5 .. 6.1 8.3 11.7
1990
7.5 5.1 3.5 3.0 4.7 5.0 9.6 7.2 .. 5.8 4.3 5.1 3.6 6.8 10.2 .. 6.5 5.2 5.4 4.8 6.9 .. 8.7 8.7 .. 5.0 6.1 7.9
2000
8.7 6.3 .. 3.3 6.7 9.8 12.8 10.3 .. 7.3 5.0 .. 4.4 .. 10.9 8.1 7.4 7.4 8.1 6.0 .. .. 16.4 10.1 .. 7.3 7.9 8.6
Proportion of females married at age 20–24, Europe 1950–2000 (in % of all women aged 20–24)
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom England/Wales Scotland Northern Ireland 48.4 33.8 46.2 34.3 20.5 39.8 25.8 .. 48.0 39.5
1950
32.8 43.3 55.1 54.8 55.6 46.8 40.3 41.1 .. 31.7 29.0 29.5 51.9 42.5 17.6 32.3 29.8 29.1 40.2 49.3 57.9 37.6 26.4 42.0 34.2 .. 57.7 51.6
1960
40.8 56.1 65.8 66.6 65.1 52.2 45.0 43.9 .. 44.4 64.6 34.4 67.1 50.7 21.8 34.7 49.4 38.6 53.1 52.4 52.4 39.0 31.4 37.6 44.5 .. 59.7 57.4
1970
52.8 59.4 63.2 65.1 58.8 52.2 46.3 43.5 .. 56.9 63.0 46.7 65.4 48.8 31.0 43.2 53.7 46.5 43.1 22.4 52.2 51.8 39.7 14.8 41.1 .. 44.4 46.2
1980
38.5 52.0 64.5 67.4 59.8 26.3 30.4 34.4 .. .. 54.6 52.0 67.2 .. 32.3 40.5 42.7 42.7 20.2 14.4 51.3 36.6 21.6 11.1 20.3 .. 22.9 24.1
1990
24.0 33.3 30.2 81.6 80.9 11.5 15.4 21.0 .. 20.3 37.9 35.6 56.1 10.1 13.7 .. 25.2 25.9 11.1 8.1 25.5 .. .. 6.1 14.2 .. 11.8 6.9
2000
13.7 15.3 .. 21.2 26.8 8.3 9.9 7.8 .. 14.8 7.9 .. 23.2 .. 3.7 12.8 17.1 9.3
Proportion of males married at age 20–24, Europe 1950–2000 (in % of all men aged 20–24
Country
Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Slovak Republic Denmark Finland France Germany West Germany East Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxemburg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom England/Wales Scotland Northern Ireland
1950
15.8 22.9 21.4 21.4 21.3 17.4 21.6 20.2 .. 16.2 11.3 11.3 24.1 20.3 5.6 9.2 9.4 20.9 12.4 25.1 16.0 5.7 15.5 8.9 .. 22.6 17.8 12.1
1960
18.8 29.4 25.6 26.7 23.4 22.7 25.4 16.6 .. 21.4 39.1 11.0 28.8 23.9 7.7 9.0 18.9 17.1 21.6 27.5 19.0 6.9 17.8 14.5 .. 30.7 27.1 21.0
1970
25.9 36.8 32.9 34.8 28.4 27.7 29.3 21.8 .. 26.1 31.2 12.8 31.4 29.7 16.1 13.5 22.9 29.8 29.5 24.0 18.6 9.5 16.3 19.0 .. 37.0 38.7 28.6
1980
17.6 28.5 31.1 32.1 29.6 9.5 14.1 14.7 .. .. 28.8 13.1 35.1 .. 17.6 12.3 18.9 18.1 7.9 25.0 28.4 18.1 4.8 16.7 .. 24.6 29.2 25.2
1990
10.9 14.9 31.0 67.8 68.5 4.8 6.8 8.5 .. 8.6 17.3 8.3 26.6 4.3 6.1 .. 10.5 7.4 5.2 22.7 18.2 8.8 4.1 8.3 .. 11.1 13.1 15.0
2000
5.7 5.3 .. 8.5 11.5 3.3 4.5 2.3 .. 5.7 2.6 .. 9.5 .. 1.6 2.9 6.0 3.4 3.1 11.1 .. .. 2.0 6.2 .. 4.4 3.2 3.8
8. The influence of family law, tax law and family and employment policies
• • • • • • • FRG: Income tax law („Ehegattensplitting“) favours the conclusion of a marriage Formerly worser position of children born out-of-wedlock put pressure to conclude a marriage; meanwhile the position of non-marital children was equalized in most law fields like inheritence law, child maintenance, law on family names, etc.
Divorce law reforms of the 1970s: introduction of the principle of marriage breakdown Unequal legal status of cohabiting couples GDR: Early marriage because of the restricted housing supply Extended system of public child-care institutions Easy divorce due to non-existent property divison rules
West Germany, 1950-1990
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 15-19 fe m a le 1990 1980 1970 1961 1950 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 Ag e g rou p 45-49 50-54 55-59 m a le 1980 1990 60-64 1950 1961 1970 30 20 10 0 65-69 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
East Germany, 1974-1971
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 15-19 fe m a le 1964 1971 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 Ag e g rou p 45-49 50-54 55-59 m a le 60-64 1964 1971 50 40 30 20 10 0 65-69 100 90 80 70 60
10. Literature
Commaille, Jacques and François de Singly 1997: The European Family: The Family Question in the European Community. Dordrecht, Boston und London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Council of Europe 1990: Household Structures in Europe: Report of the Select Committee of Experts on Household Structures. Population Studies, No. 22. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
EUROSTAT 1994: Households and Families in the European Union. Rapid reports, Population and Social Conditions. Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (François Bégeot).
EUROSTAT 1995: Households and Families in the European Economic Area. Statistics in Focus. Population and Social Conditions, 1995, no. 5. Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Höpflinger, François 1987: Wandel der Familienbildung in Westeuropa. Frankfurt a.M. und New York: Campus.
10. Literature (cont‘d)
Höpflinger, François 1997: Haushalts- und Familienstrukturen im intereuropäischen Vergleich. In: Stefan Hradil und Stefan Immerfall, Die westeuropäischen Gesellschaften im Vergleich. Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 97–138.
Pfenning, Astrid and Thomas Bahle, eds. 2000: Families and Family Policies in Europe: Comparative Perspectives. Frankfirt a.M. et al.: Peter Lang.
Rothenbacher, Franz 2005: The European Population since 1945. The Societies of Europe, vol. 4. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.