Last revised: May 2005

Motivation Chapter 11

William G. Huitt

Summary

• A human being is inherently – biological – conditioned by the environment – able to gather data about the world through the senses and organize that data – emotional – intelligent (adapt to, modify, and select environments) – able to create and use knowledge – able to form concepts, think rationally – able to use language – social

Defining Motivation

• Internal state or condition – activates behavior – gives it direction • Desire or want – energizes – directs goal-oriented behavior

Defining Motivation

• Influence of needs and desires – intensity – direction of behavior • Process that – initiates – directs – sustains behavior – to satisfy physiological or psychological needs or wants

Defining Motivation • Why is the concept of motivation necessary?

– Achievement = Aptitude * Opportunity * Effort – Motivation explains activation, direction, and persistence of effort

Defining Motivation • Extrinsic motivation

– The desire to perform an act to meet external demands or requirements • Classical conditioning—associated stimuli • Operant conditioning—consequences • Social learning—models and imitation • Social cognition—influence of others on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Defining Motivation • Intrinsic motivation

– The desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself – Satisfies internal need or desire • Biology • Cognition • Emotion • Volition • Spiritual • Moral

Instinct Theories of Motivation

• The notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate patterns of action that are activated in response to stimuli • Not the same as genetic tendencies • Most psychologists today reject instinct theory – human behavior is too richly diverse – often too unpredictable

Drive-reduction Theory

• A theory of motivation suggesting that a need creates an unpleasant state of arousal or tension called a drive, which impels the organism to engage in behavior that will satisfy the need and reduce the tension • Popularized by Clark Hull – Believed that all living organisms have certain biological needs that must be met if they are to survive

Drive-reduction Theory

• Drive-reduction theory is derived largely from the biological concept of homeostasis • Homeostasis – The tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state with regard to oxygen level, body temperature, blood sugar, water balance, and so forth – Everything required for physical existence must be maintained in a state of equilibrium, or balance • When this state is disturbed, a drive is created to restore the balance • Cognitive dissonance derived from this theory

Drive-reduction Theory

• In the Navajo religion and culture, there is an emphasis on how you relate to everything around you. Everything has to be measured, weighed, and harmonious. We call it nizhoni — walking in beauty.

– American Indigenous Religions, Lori Cupp (Navajo)

Primary Drives

• A state of tension or arousal arising from a biological need; one not based on learning – Oxygen – Thirst – Hunger – Sleep – Sex – Comfort

Primary Drives

• Internal and external hunger cues – Hypothalamus • Of central importance in regulating eating behavior and thus affect the hunger drive – Other internal hunger and satiety signals • Some of the substances secreted by the gastrointestinal tract during digestion act as satiety signals • Changes in blood sugar level and the hormones that regulate it also contribute to sensations of hunger – External signals • Sensory cues, such as the taste, smell, and appearance of food, stimulate the appetite

Primary Drives

• Eating disorders – Anorexia nervosa • An eating disorder characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of being fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss – Bulimia nervosa • An eating disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled episodes of binge eating, usually followed by purging, which is self-induced vomiting and/or the use of large quantities of laxatives and diuretics

Arousal Theory

• A theory suggesting that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal • Arousal – A state of alertness and mental and physical activation – When arousal is too low, animals and humans seek to increase stimulation – When arousal is too high, animals and humans seek to decrease stimulation

Arousal Theory

• Yerkes-Dodson law – Performance on tasks is best when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task • higher arousal for simple tasks • moderate arousal for tasks of moderate difficulty • lower arousal for complex tasks – Performance suffers when arousal level is either too high or too low for the task

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Abraham Maslow – Attempted to develop a theory of motivation that would synthesize multiple theories – Proposed two sets of needs • Deficiency needs • Growth needs – Growth needs develop after deficiency needs are met – Lowest unmet need will receive attention – Believed that these motivational processes were central to the human personality

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Social Motives

• Motives acquired through experience and interaction with others (McClelland, Murray) – Need for achievement (n Ach) • The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence – Need for affiliation • The need to have harmonious relationships with other people and to be accepted by others – Need for power • Personal – want to direct others • Institutional – want to organize efforts of others to meet the needs of the institution

Need for Achievement • Characteristics of achievers

– High n Ach • pursue goals that are challenging, yet attainable through hard work, ability, determination, and persistence • see their success as a result of their own talents, abilities, persistence, and hard work – Low n Ach • not willing to take chances when it comes to testing their own skills and abilities • when fail, usually give up quickly

Need for Achievement • Parents can foster n Ach

– give children responsibilities – teach them to think and act independently from the time they are very young – stress excellence, persistence, and independence – praise them sincerely for their accomplishments

Expectancy Theory

• Motivation to engage in a given activity is determined by: – Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success – Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection between activity and goal – Valence – the degree to which a person values the results of success • Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valance

Work Motivation

• The conditions and processes responsible for the arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort one puts forth in one’s job • Two of the most effective ways to improve – reinforcement – goal setting

Work Motivation

• Examples of reinforcement in the workplace include: – Recognition awards – Praise – Posting of individual performance – Time off – Better offices – More impressive titles – Promotions – Bonuses

Work Motivation

• Goal setting – Have employees participate in the goal setting – Make goals specific, attractive, difficult, and attainable – Provide feedback on performance – Reward employees for attaining the goals