Transcript Using POCS Method of Problem

CHAPTER 7
(Thinking, Language, & Intelligence)
Michael L. Farris
Psychology 101
Cognition (p. 224)
– The process of thinking or mentally
processing information (images, concepts,
words, rules, and symbols).
– At its most basic, thinking is an internal
representation (mental expression) of a
problem or situation. (Picture a chess
player who mentally tries out several
moves before actually touching a chess
piece.)
– Cognitive psychology is the study of
thinking, knowing, understanding, problem
solving, creativity, and information
processing.
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Semantics (p. 233)

The study of meanings in language. It is
here that the link between language and
thought becomes most evident. Semantics
affect thinking when the words we choose
alter underlying meanings: Has one country’s
army “invaded” another? Or “effected a
protective incursion”? Is the city reservoir
“half full” or “half empty”? Would you rather
eat “prime beef” or “dead cow”?
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Intelligence (p. 238-250)

An overall capacity to think rationally, act purposefully,
and deal effectively with the environment.

Mental age (p. 238): The average mental ability people
display at a given age. For example, at age 8 or 9, very few
children can define the word connection. At age 10, 10%
can. At age 13, 60% can. In other words, the ability to define
connection indicates mental ability equal to that of an average
13 year old and gives a mental age of 13 (on this single item).

To measure mental abilities, scientists Binet and Simon
developed an intelligence test with tasks scaled according to
the age at which a child should be able to perform them
successfully. The age at which the child’s performance
topped off was considered the child’s mental age.

Table 10.5 from page 355 of the Coon book gives a sample
of items from the Stanford-Binet (a widely used individual
test of intelligence, or “I.Q.”) that persons of average
intelligence (90-110) can answer at various ages.
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Intelligence Quotient
Chronological Age: A person’s age in years. When we
relate mental age to actual (chronological) age, we get
an IQ, or intelligence quotient.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index of intelligence
defined as a person’s mental age divided by his or her
chronological age and multiplied by 100. MA/CA times
100=IQ. This is what is measured by tests like the
Stanford-Binet. IQ=100 when Mental Age =
Chronological Age. An IQ score of 100 is therefore
defined as average intelligence. Remember, though,
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there is always a range. Nevid, Pgs.238-239.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleThird Edition (WAIS-III) (p. 357)

An adult intelligence test that rates both verbal and performance
intelligence. Verbal and non-verbal abilities can be broken down further, to
reveal various cognitive strengths and weaknesses. The abilities measured
by the Wechsler tests and some sample test items are listed in Coon, table
10.6 on page 357.

It is important to realize that intelligence tests may not be equally valid for all
groups. As one psychologist says, “If the Wechsler and Binet scales were
translated into Spanish, Swahili, and Chinese and given to every 10
year old in Latin America, East Africa, or China, the majority would
obtain IQ scores in the mentally retarded range.”

Certainly we cannot believe that children of different cultures are all
retarded. The fault must lie in the test. Cultural values, traditions, and
experiences can greatly affect performance on tests designed for Western
cultures.

To avoid this problem, some psychologists have tried to develop culture-fair
tests, designed to minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may
be more common in some cultures than in others. (For a sample of culture
fair items, see figure 10.20 on Coon, page 358).
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Average Intelligence
Normal Curve (Coon, p. 357;
Nevid, pgs. 238-239) A bell shaped
curve characterized by a large number
of scores in a middle area, tapering to a
very few extremely high and low scores.
(This can be demonstrated with class
grades, and with IQ scores.)
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Mental Retardation (p. 238, 243-244)

Mental retardation (Coon, p. 361): The presence of a
developmental disability, a formal IQ score below 70, or a
significant impairment of adaptive behavior (adaptive behaviors
are basic skills and actions considered necessary for self-care
and for dealing successfully with the environment). Nevid
defines it as a generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual
and social skills.

Causes of retardation: About 50% of all cases of mental
retardation are organic, or related to physical disorders.

Typical problems include birth injuries (such as a lack of
oxygen) and fetal damage (from disease, infection, or the
mother’s abuse of drugs or alcohol). Metabolic disorders also
cause retardation. These are problems with the rate of energy
production and use in the body.

Some forms of retardation are linked to genetic abnormalities,
including missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes.
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Levels of Mental Retardation and
Capabilities of School-Age Children
Level of Mental
Retardation (IQ
Range)
Mild (50-70)
Percentage of
Cases at Each
Level
85%
Capabilities of
School-Age
Children
Able to acquire reading and
arithmetic skills to about a 6th
grade level and can later function
relatively independently and
engage in productive work.
Moderate (35-49) 10%
Able to learn simple
communication and manual
skills, but have difficulty
acquiring reading and arithmetic
skills.
Severe (20-34)
3-4%
Capable of basic speech and may
be able to learn repetitive tasks in
supervised settings.
Profound (Below 1-2%
20)
Severe delays in all areas of
development, but some may learn
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simple tasks in supervised
settings.
Inductive vs. Deductive Thought (Coon, p. 363)

Inductive thought : Thinking in which a
general rule or principle is inferred from a
series of specific examples; for instance,
inferring the laws of gravity by observing
many falling objects. *from small to BIG*

Deductive thought :Thought that applies a
general set of rules to specific situations; for
example, using the laws of gravity to predict
the behavior of a single falling object.
*FROM BIG to small*
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Brainstorming

A method of creative thinking that separates the
production and evaluation of ideas. The essence of
brainstorming is that producing and evaluating ideas
are kept separate. In group problem solving, each
person is encouraged to produce as many ideas as
possible without fear of criticism. This encourages
divergent thinking (and may help you come up with ideas
and solutions you never thought of before). Some of the
most successful brainstorming takes place on computer
networks, where each person’s fears of being evaluated
are minimized.

Only at the end of a brainstorming session are ideas
reconsidered and evaluated. As ideas are freely
generated, an interesting cross-stimulation effect takes
place in which one participant’s ideas trigger ideas from
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others. Nevid, page 252.
Brainstorming
The basic rules for successful brainstorming are:

1. Criticism of ideas is absolutely barred. Defer evaluation
until later in the session.

2. Modification or combination with other ideas is
encouraged. Don’t worry about giving credit for ideas or
keeping them neat. Mix them up!

3. Quantity of ideas is sought. In the early stages of
brainstorming, quantity is more important than quality. Try
to generate lots of ideas.

4. Unusual, remote, or wild ideas are sought. Let your
imagination run amok!

5. Record ideas as they occur.

6. Elaborate or improve on the most promising ideas.12