Transcript Document
Chapter 8: Language and
Thought
The Cognitive Revolution
19th Century focus on the mind
Introspection
Behaviorist focus on overt responses
arguments
regarding incomplete picture of human
functioning
Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conference
Simon
and Newell – problem solving
Chomsky – new model of language
Miller – memory
Language: Turning Thoughts into Words
Properties of Language
Symbolic
Semantic
Generative
Structured
The Hierarchical Structure of Language
Phonemes = smallest speech units
100
possible, English – about 40
Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning
50,000
Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations
Objects
in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes
and actions to which words refer
Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words
into sentences
Different
rules for different languages
Language Development: Milestones
Initial vocalizations similar across languages
Crying,
6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble
surrounding language
Twin
cooing, babbling
Talk
1 year – first word
similar
cross-culturally – words for parents
receptive vs. expressive language
Table 8.2 Overview of Typical Language Development
Language Development:
Milestones Continued
18-24 months – vocabulary spurt
fast
mapping
over and underextensions
Overextension
= Child calls all things round “ball”
Underextension = Child uses word “puppy” only in reference to
their family pet, fails to recognize other puppies
End of second year – combine words
Telegraphic
speech = “Me have now!”
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) = # of morphemes
End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past
tense
Overregularization
= “I runned over here fast!”
Bilingualism:
Learning More Than One Language
Research findings:
Smaller
vocabularies in one language, combined
vocabularies average
Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on
cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective
attention, and metalinguistic awareness
Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing
speed
2nd languages more easily acquired early in life
Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition
Figure 8.4 Age and second language learning
B.F. Skinner v. Noam Chomsky
Attempts to explain language development have sparked a spirited intellectual controversy. At the heart of this controversy is the nature-nurture debate.
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner believed that we can explain how babies acquire language entirely with principles of learning, such as the association of
objects with the sounds of words, the imitation of language modeled by others, and the reinforcement of correct use of words and syntax by parents and
teachers. Linguist Noam Chomsky, who favors the nature position, believes that much of our language capacity is inborn. According to this perspective,
just as "learning" to walk is programmed according to a timetable of biological maturation, so children are prewired to begin to babble and talk.
In this exercise, review each of the following examples of language use by children and decide whether it best supports
the position of B. F. Skinner or Noam Chomsky.
1. While Marie and her mother are looking at a book together, Marie's mother shows her a
picture of an animal and says "cow." Marie says "cow," and her mother praises her for
her correct utterance. Two pages later, Marie spontaneously points to a picture and
correctly identifies it as a cow.
2. When his day care teacher asks 2-year-old Jack what he did last Saturday, he responds
with "We goed to the zoo." His teacher smiles, marveling at the fact that all children Jack's
age make this type of grammatical error.
3. Nicole, who is deaf and was not exposed to sign language until age 3, lacks the manual
linguistic skills of deaf children born to deaf-signing parents.
4. Twelve-year-old Malcolm, who emigrated to the United States at age 4, understands
English grammar much better than 20-year-old Maya, who was first exposed to English at
age 12.
Can Animals Develop Language?
Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees
Vocal
apparatus issue
American Sign Language
Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)
Chimpanzee
- Washoe
160 word vocabulary
Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
Bonobo
chimpanzee - Kanzi
Symbols
Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests
Theories of Language Acquisition
Behaviorist
Skinner
(Verbal Behavior 1957)
learning
of specific verbal responses
Nativist
Chomsky
learning
the rules of language
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Interactionist
Cognitive,
theories
social communication, and emergentist
Perspective Taking: Do Animals Have Language?
Few controversies have so divided the scientific community as has the
controversy about the apes’ capacity for language. Although many scientists
have made serious attempts at rearing apes in language-rich environments,
the results have not overwhelmingly demonstrated that apes can use
language as human beings us it.
At the heart of the argument are the criteria we use to determine true
capacity for language. Generally, scientists specializing in the study of
language impose the following criteria for the debate:
•Is the language symbolic: Can it be used to represent absent objects?
•Does the language have systematic syntax, or word order?
•Can the language be used in a creative or productive manner?
Figure 8.5 Interactionist theories of language acquisition
Problem Solving: Types of Problems
Greeno (1978) – three basic classes
Problems of inducing structure
Series
completion and analogy problems
Problems of arrangement
String
problem and Anagrams
Often
solved through insight
Problems of transformation
Hobbits
and orcs problem
Water jar problem
Simple Word Problems
In the Thompson family there are five brothers and
each brother has one sister. If you count Mrs.
Thompson, how many females are in the Thompson
family?
Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka have
unlisted phone numbers. You select 200 names at
random from the Topeka phone book. How many
of these people can be expected to have unlisted
phone numbers?
Figure 8.6 Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving
Solution to Water Jar Problem
(B-A-2C)
Mental Set
“Insanity is doing the same thing over and over and
expecting different results”
– Einstein
The first four require the same strategy
(B-A-2C)
The 5th is much simpler (A-C), however people get
stuck here
Without lifting your
pencil from the
paper, draw no
more than 4
straight lines that
will cross through
all nine dots.
-no retracing lines
Unnecessary Constraints
•Most people will not draw
lines outside the imaginary
boundary that surrounds
the dots
•That constraint is imposed
by the problem solver, not
the prompt.
•People also feel compelled
to draw 4 lines, but that’s
not necessary
The Matchstick Problem
Move 2 matches to form 4
(and only 4) equal squares.
Matchstick Solution
Effective Problem Solving
Barriers to effective problem solving:
Irrelevant
Information
Functional Fixedness
Mental Set
Unnecessary Constraints
Word Problems
Susan gets in her car in Boston and drives toward
New York City, averaging 50 mph. Twenty minutes
later, Ellen gets in her car in New York City driving
towards Boston, averaging 60 miles per hour. Both
women take the same route, which extends a total
of 220 miles between the 2 cities. Which car is
nearer to Boston when they meet?
Figure 8.12 The tower of Hanoi problem
Approaches to Problem Solving
Algorithms
Systematic
trial-and-error
Guaranteed solution
Heuristics
Shortcuts
No
guaranteed solution
Forming
subgoals
Working backward
Searching for analogies
Changing the representation of a problem
Figure 8.16 Representing the bird and train problem
Culture, Cognitive Style,
and Problem Solving
Field dependence – relying on external frames of
reference
Field independence – relying on internal frames of
reference
Western
cultures inspire field independence
Cultural influence based in ecological demands
Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles
Decision Making:
Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices
Simon (1957) – theory of bounded rationality
Making Choices
Additive
strategies
Elimination by aspects
Risky decision making
Expected
value
Subjective utility
Subjective probability
Table 8.3 Application of the additive model to choosing an apartment
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
The availability heuristic
Explains
why you are afraid of being attacked by a shark,
but you shouldn’t be.
The representativeness heuristic
Judging
a book by it’s cover
Use your representative heuristic
to make assumptions about this guy
Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions
The gambler’s fallacy
Assuming
Overestimating the improbable
More
likely to die in an airplane or car?
Confirmation bias
Seeking
information to confirm what you already believe
The overconfidence effect
98%
something will happen soon because it’s “due”
confidence intervals only right 60% of the time
Framing
10
people are drowning, you can either save 5 of them
OR let 5 of them die