Transcript Carbon Sequestration: Geological Means

Carbon Sequestration
Geoscience Controls on Macroengineering Problems
Julio Friedmann
Univ. Maryland
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Acknowledgements
Dag Nummedal, Donna Anderson, Peigui Yin, Mike Batzle
Inst. For Energy Research, Univ. Wyoming
RM-CUSP (Rocky Mts. Regional Partnership)
Vicki Stamp, Michael Milliken
Rocky Mt. Oil-field Testing Center
Gerry Stokes, Jim Dooley, Jae Edmonds, Steve Fetter
Joint Global Change Research Inst,
Univ. Maryland, Battelle-Pacific NW National Labs
Robin Newmark, James Johnson
Lawrence Livermore National Labs
Other industrial contributors
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Massive Energy Demand
Tremendous growth in demand
By 2050, another 300 exojoules needed
Significant growth in developing countries (India, China)
Many off-the table technologies
(fusion, tidal, space-based solar)
Many promising technologies require
deployment time
Many promising technologies require
development time
Energy research funding down for 30
years
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Millions of Tons of Oil Equivalent
Limits to technologies that can
bridge demand
Nuclear
Hydro
Gas
Oil (feedstock)
Oil
Coal
Wood
0
Stokes et al., 2002
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We will rely heavily on fossil fuels for our energy needs
Fossil Fuel Concerns
On a grand scale, SOx, NOx, ozone, and metals are negligible
concerns (rapid progress, low cost, straightforward regulatory
framework)
Atmosphere 750 PgC
Oil 130 Gas 120
PgC
PgC
Coal
5,000 to 8,000 PgC
Unconventional Liquids and Gases
40,000 PgC
CARBON DIOXIDE AND GHG EMISSIONS ARE MAJOR CHALLENGE
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CO2 Concentration for last 400,000 yrs
CO2 Conce ntration in Ice Core Sam ple s and
Pr oje ctions for Ne xt 100 Ye ars
700
Proj ected
(2100)
Projected (2100)
650
Vos tokRecord
Re cor d
Vostok
IPCCDome
IS92aRecord
Sce nario
Law
Law Dom
Re cor d
Mauna
LoaeRecord
IPCC
IS92a
Scenario
Mauna Loa Re cor d
550
500
450
400
Curr ent
(2001)
Current
(2001)
350
CO2 Concentration
(ppmv)
(ppmv)
CO2 Concentration
600
300
250
200
150
400,000
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300,000
200,000
Ye ars Be for e Pr e s e nt
(B. P. -- 1950)
100,000
0
www.clivar.org
Separation of natural and non-natural
Most of the Observed Warming of the Last 50 Years is Attributable to
Human Activities
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www.clivar.org
Projected Temperatures for the 21st Century Are Significantly
Higher Than at Any Time During the Last 1000 Years
These
projected
changes are
larger than in
1995 due
lower
projected
emissions of
sulfur
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www.clivar.org
Carbon Sequestration Basics: Kaya Equation
CO2 Emissions = Population x (GDP/capita)
x (Energy/GDP) x (CO2/Energy)
- (Removal from the Atmosphere)
Despite significant gains in efficiency, current emissions
increase in (mostly increased energy consumption)
Economically and politically painful to reduce energy
consumption
CARBON SEQUESTRATION WILL HAVE TO BE
DEPLOYED VERY RAPIDLY AT AN ENORMOUS SCALE
FOR SAFE GHG STABILIZATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE
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India and China
Almost 40%of world population
Large coal resources, consumption
Few oil/gas resources
Limited water
Growth of auto industry
Growth of developing nation energy, esp. China and India, will
be coal-based, requiring CO2 storage options
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Carbon Sequestration: General Modes
Ocean Sequestration – risky, uncertain, and pricey
Direct, deep-ocean injection -- high Ph, monitoring, NIMBY
Biogeoengineering -- very risky, uncertain efficiency
Geological Sequestration – point-source limited (pricey)
Saline Reservoirs -- infrastructure costs
Old Oil/Gas fields -- containment risks
Coal Beds -- infrastructure costs, tough to monitor
Soil/Plant Sequestration – low-volume and problematic
No-till farming – low volume, low retention, trading
Adding biomass – monitoring, short time frame, small volume
Chemical Sequestration -- pricey and dicey
Creating terrestrial solids – expensive, energy intensive
Creating hydrates – very risky, probably v. costly
Basalt injection – untested technology, slow reaction rates
Advanced concepts – unproven or developing technology
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Carbon Sequestration: General Modes
Ocean & Geological
modes have the
highest storage
capacity, which
would cover from
50 to >250 years of
current emission
volumes. They also
have long term
sequestration
potential
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DOE, Carbon Sequestration Roadmap
Geological Sequestration in the US
• Near sources (power plants, refineries, coal fields)
• Near other infrastructure (pipelines)
• Need sufficient storage capacity locally
• Must be verifiable (populated areas problematic)
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DOE Vision & Goal:
1 Gt storage by 2025, 4 Gt by 2050
CO2 Streams for Geological Storage
High purity stream (> 90% CO2) critical
Sleipner capture
device
Currently, mostly natural sources
Refineries, IGCC’s and gas processing
facilities are cheapest; capture
devices on traditional plants possible.
CO2 cost (1986$/Mscf, recov. & comp.)
70
5
refinery
Ananda, 1983
60
50
4
Planned
Real
Cumulative Worldwide
Gasification Capacity
40
3
2
30
cement
plant
20
10
1
0
ammonia plant (ethanol)
0
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20
40
60
80
Throughput (MMscf/d)
100
0
1975
1985
Year
1995
2005
Courtesy of R. Bajura, NETL
CO2 Burial: Saline Reservoirs
Different test sequestration projects 2002-2004
Mountaineer Project
• AEP/Battelle
• Mt Simon Fm.
• NOT closure
dependent -dynamic
sequestration
S. Texas:
• DOE/U. Texas
• Frio Trend
• closure
dependent; already
mapped
• Small (2000 tons)
US saline reservoirs have a potential
of up to 130 G tonnes sequestration
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DOE, 1999
Sleipner Vest: Utsira Formation
FIRST major attempt an large volume CO2
sequestration, offshore Norway. Active since 1996.
Monoethanolamine (MEA) capture
Economic driver: Norwegian carbon tax on
industry ($50/ton C)
Cost of storage: $15/ton C
Geol. Survey of
Denmark & Greenland
Operator: Statoil
Partners: Norsk-Hydro,
Petoro, Shell-Esso,
Total-Elf-Fina
http://www.statoil.com
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Target: 1 MM ton C/yr.
So far, 6 MM tons
Miocene Aquifer: DW fan
complex
 30-40% porosity, 200 m
thick
 high permeability
 between 15-36 oC – w/i
critical range
4D seismic monitoring and visualization
Seismic Survey of Utsira Fm.
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Courtesy of Statoil and IEA
CO2 Burial: Coal Reservoirs
Many current coal-bed methane CO2 injection projects
DOE, 1999
The estimated
US sequestration
potential is 10 G
tonnes, but is
probably higher
Courtesy Adv. Resources International
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Large, active project in N.
New Mexico, injecting both
CO2 & N2 for ECBM
recovery
CO2 Burial: Coal-bed adsorption capacity
CO2 adsorbs directly onto the
micropore surface of coal cleats. In
the process, it displaces CH4.
16
• Commonly, 2 CO2 captured for
every CH4 molecule.
• This may vary with coal rank.
• Worst ECBM coals may make
best sequestration coals
12
8
Uncertainties include effects of coal
mineralogy, brine chemistry, other
issues
4
0
Anth
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Bitum Sub-bit
Lign
Data from H. Gluskoter & R. Burruss, USGS, Reston
Oil Shales (High TOC mudstones)
Low-moderate grade organic-rich
mudstones have some petrologic
similarities to coal as regards
their gas adsorption. This means
that they are a viable CO2 storage
targets
Almost nothing is known about
these rocks as potential
reservoirs.
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Plateau Basalts
These flows involved 40,000
cubic miles of mafic rock.
This may react with with
carbon-rich fluids to form
iron and magnesium
carbonates.
The permeability is fracture
controlled. The slow
reaction rates and uncertain
hydrology make these
targets problematic.
Pacific Northwest Labs is
preparing a test site for
potential carbon storage.
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CO2 Capture: Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
At right temperature and
pressure, CO2 will dissolve in
oil through multiple-contact
miscibility. This decreases insitu viscosity and increases
oil volume. improving
recovery of oil in place.
Although some CO2 is coproduced, most remains
dissolved in subsurface
oil, where it is effectively
sequestered.
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http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/
CO2 Injection Schemes for EOR
Weyburn CO2 Recompressor
( under construction)
There are multiple approaches
which are optimized as a
function of AGI gravity, water
saturation, wettability,
permeability, and CO2 slug size
Continuous
Contin./H2O
http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/weyburn6.htm
WAG/H2O
TWAG/H2O
WAG/Gas
Start
flood
CO2
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Stop Start
flood chase
H2O
Stop
chase
Natural Gas
Jarrell et al., 2002
EOR Project: Weyburn Field
EnCana EOR project, Saskatchewan
Takes ~5000 tonnes/day CO2 from a
coal gasification plant in North
Dakota (330 km pipeline) to recover
130-160 MM bbl incremental oil
Carbonate reservoir at 1400 m
• Injection has resulted in local
dissolution; enhanced porosity
• Unexpected fracture trends
At project
end, ~19
million
tonnes CO2
sequestered
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Discovered in 1954, 50 000 acres
Initial OIP 1.3 billion barrels w/ 23-34o API gravity.
Primary production + waterflood = ~34% of the STOOIP
With enhanced recovery, almost 50% of the oil.
Will extend field life 25 years in a 40 year project
The first CO2 injected in the 2000.
http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/weyburn4.htm
Large Scale Studies
Due to the scale of the problem, large-scale results are critical to largescale sequestration efforts
Fossil-Fuel Carbon Emissions (GtC/y)
30
25
20
A1B
A1T
A1F1
WRE450
A2
WRE550
B1
B2
15
Learnings from Weyburn
and Sleipner
10
5
0
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
Learnings from petroleum
industry (5 year rule of
thumb)
Remember that world-wide, ~2000 MM tons/yr needed for stabilization
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Courtesy of S. Fetter, UMD and JGCRI
Rocky Mountains as a logical test
High Density of potential reservoirs
• Unmineable coal seams
• Old oil fields (e.g. Rangely)
• Large capacity gas fields near
blowdown
• Saline aquifers (dynamic&static)
• Oil shales
CO2 and industry infrastructure
• Wyoming: 89 MM tons/yr
• Long-lived hydrocarbon
industry
• Enormous public/private data
base for science/engineering
• Carbon advisory boards
Current WY-CO-UT CO2 Pipelines
with 10, 25 & 50 km radii
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Low population density
Low risk of serious
environmental/seismic hazards
D. Anderson, Col. School of Mines and CUSP
CARBON UTILIZATION & STORAGE
PARTNERSHIP (RM-CUSP)
Major Multi-sectoral Effort
Seven Universities
Four petroleum companies
Two coal companies
Five power companies
Three national labs/facilities
Six NGO’s/Environmental groups
Multiple state govt. agencies
Multidisciplinary team
Geologists, geochemists, geophysicists
Biologists, geographers, ecologists
Economists, policy experts, politicians
Educators, museum community
Petroleum, mechanical, & chemical engineers
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Zero Emissions Plants: Siting & Construction
100
14
12
1.5ºC
10
8
2ºC
6
4
3ºC
2
4.5ºC
0
2000
% carbon emission-free primary power
Fossil carbon emissions (GtC/yr)
Stabilization of atmospheric concentration of GHG/CO2 requires
extremely steep reduction of emissions and rapid deployment of
zero-emissions power plants.
2050
2100
2150
2200
4.5ºC
3ºC
80
2ºC
60
1.5ºC
40
20
0
2000
2020
2040
2060
2080
2100
Within a 2ºC warming scenario, we must build a 900 ± 500 MW zeroemissions plant somewhere in the world each day for 50 years.
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Caldeira et al., 2003
Gasified, Combined Cycle Plants (IGCC)
High efficiency (50%), high
wattage (>500 MW) plants
Feedstocks:
Coal
biomass
solid waste
orimulsion
British Coal
gasifier: burns
sewage sludge
Gasification
Process
• Mix feedstock with steam (syngas)
• Strip sulfur, metals as slag
• No ash/fly ash
Combustion by-products:
• Hydrogen (feedstock for fuel cells)
• Pure CO2 stream
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Reduction in cost and
efficiency improvements
are needed to deploy
these plants more
broadly (high cap. ex.)
www.ieagreen.cc.uk
FutureGen (Zero Emissions Plant)
“Today I am pleased to announce… a $1 billion, 10 year
demonstration project to create the world’s first coal-based, zeroemissions electricity and hydrogen power plant”
-- G.W. Bush
Carbon Capture:
• Initial goal: 90% capture
• Ultimate goal: 100% capture
Economics:
• <10% increase in cost of electricity
• H2 production at $4/million Btus
• S and N2 used for fertilizers
Power Generation:
• ~275 MW (small prototype)
• 50-60% efficiency
Successful plant siting requires proper characterization of injection
targets in terms of capacity (~50 years) and rate
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DOE Fossil Energy
Orimulsion Gasified Fuels
Orimulsion is a bitumen (70%) emulsified with water (30%), with
some stabilizing additives. It is a fuel well suited for gasified
combustion, and is the product of heavy-oil (tar sand) production
Very large reserves:
• Orinoco: 1.2 trillion STOOIP
• Canada: 1.4 trillion STOOIP
Energy content
• Coal – 6700 Kcal/kg
• Fuel oil – 10600 Kcal/kg
• Orimulsion – 7200 Kcal/kg
Orimulsion has various issues
about how to maintain fluid
transport w/o deposition in
pipelines or tankers, as well as
how to best atomize for
combustion
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www.orimulsion.com
Critical EOR Research Targets
Sandstone Reservoirs (EOR and Saline aquifers)
Reservoir architecture and heterogeneity
Multiphase fluid flow in porous media
Brine/rock/CO2 chemical interactions
Carbonate reservoirs (EOR and Saline aquifers)
CO2 dissolution: poro-perm enhancement, seal leakage
Fracture characteristics
Brine/rock/CO2 chemical interactions
EOR specific research
Dissolution kinetics/miscibility in sequestration
Production response given initial API gravity, viscosity
Coal/ECBM/Oil Shale Reservoirs
Effects of coal/shale petrology
Fractures density, permeability, and distribution
Far-field aquifer affects
Gas mixture adsorption
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CAPTURE DEVICES!
The cost of capture is the single largest impediment to
implementation of carbon sequestration at a grand scale
Carbon/Hydrogen Capture:
• Amine (MEA) scrubbing
• Ceramic membranes
• Oxygenated combustion
Significant reductions of cost or
even comparative cost will enable
rapid deployment of carbon
storage schema
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DOE Fossil Energy
Cap Rock Integrity
A major concern in
sequestration is preventing
leakage and “blowout”.
These issues rely on the
integrity of the seal or cap
rock.
New models suggest that
certain minerals
(Magnesite, Dawsonite)
may precipitate at the top
of the CO2 reservoir,
increasing the thickness
and decreasing the
permeability of the cap
rock.
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Johnson et al., 2001
Capillary Entry Pressure
Seals integrity is commonly
estimated by capillary entry
pressure tests. Air, gas, or
mercury is injected into rock,
and pressure difference across
rock sample is measured.
When pressure is high enough
to overcome capillary forces or
to induce fracturing, fast paths
are established and leakage
occurs.
This is a concern where
overpressurizing reservoirs via
CO2 injection, but most natural
seals are sufficient
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Harrington & Horseman., 1999
Effective Monitoring and Verification
Necessary for both public safety and proper crediting
3D and 4D seismic
Electrical Resistance
Tomography (ERT)
Spiking of injection stream
Soil Surveys
Subsurface and near field
water sampling
Courtesy Robin Newmark, LLNL
http://geosciences.llnl.gov/esd/ert/
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Advanced Storage Concepts
The goal of many of these approaches is solid-state deposition of
carbon as new minerals
• Genetic engineering of
carbonate-forming minerals
• Distributed capture devices
(e.g. venetian blind
technology)
• Pulverized serpentine wind
tunnels
In general, these approaches rely on untested technology with large
costs or uncertainties.
Critical component of a research portfolio
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Geological-Biological Interactions
Everybody’s favorite next-generation science: many short- and longterm projects and studies aimed at subsurface sequestration
Microbially mediated
carbonate precipitation
Methanogenic/chemotrophic
bacteria in coal seams and oil
shales
Adequate accounting of key
subsurface actors
Atomic force micrograph of Shewanella bacteria (yellow) on
the hematite surface (blue) immersed in anaerobic solution.
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Courtesy of S. Lower, UMD
Conclusions
Fossil fuels will be a primary component of future
energy supply, driving carbon capture & storage
MUCH geology, geochemistry, and geophysics is
needed to meet the rapidly evolving needs
LARGE SCALE tests are crucial to understand
true feasibility and create appropriate
policy/economic structures
The agenda is broad and the needs immense, but
together we are equal to these challenges.
Kofi Annan
Science, March 2003
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