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Review

Key Themes

• The US Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy • Interaction with Congress • Interservice Relations • Technology • Leaders • Strategy and Tactics • US Naval Doctrine over Time • The Future

Sea Power and Maritime Affairs Lesson 1: The American Revolution 1775-1783

Learning Objectives

• Comprehend the American Revolution in the context of European politics and the regeneration of the struggle between Great Britain and France.

• Know and be able to identify the causes of the American Revolution.

• Comprehend the uses of sea power by the Americans, British and French.

Learning Objectives

• Know the course of the war and representative campaigns.

• Comprehend the relationship of military and naval policy, diplomacy, and strategy as demonstrated during the war.

European Political Context

• Results of the Seven Year’s War – The Peace of Paris, 1763, was a “truce”, in effect, not a peace.

– Britain (sea power) and France (land power) potential enemies – Rivalry for Empire: N. America, W. Indies, Indian Ocean – Britain wants colonials to: • Pay costs of Seven Years’ War- British finances seriously depleted • Garrison soldiers • Proclamation of 1763 • Oppressive acts • Resulting American Revolution becomes a renewed Anglo-French War

State of Major Power Navies

• Great Britain – Permanent Fighting Instructions – • Rigidly defined tactics • Limits ability of Admirals to concentrate fleet’s firepower.

• France – Seven Year’s War decimates France’s Navy – Navy is rebuilt in conjunction with Spain.

Two Doctrines

• •

Guerre de course

: commerce raiding – predominant in 19th century

Guerre d’escadre

: squadron, i.e. naval warfare in line formations – predominant in 20th century • Since the American Revolution both traditions have competed with one another in American doctrinal thought

Advantages of Being a Colony

– Protection – Ready market for goods – Benefit of imperial trade.

Disadvantages of Being a Colony

– All trade supported Britain • No trade outside of empire. • British set who colonies traded with – Different national interests • Americans would trade with anyone – No voice in policy • No say in Parliament

The Beligerants:

• Great Britain – Advantages • • Large economy based on world empire Well established government • • Professional Army • Royal Navy is most powerful Navy in the world – Disadvantages • • • Long Lines of Communication Fighting on “Foreign” Soil Many hostile nation in Europe Unfamiliar with guerrilla warfare and skirmishing • Not enough manpower to occupy the entire 13 Colonies

The Beligerants:

• American Colonies – Advantages • Fighting on “Home Turf” • Ready market of raw resources • • No specific center of gravity Lots of territory – Disadvantages • • • Weak central government: Continental Congress Economy designed to support Britain in mercantilist system Disunity - Loyalists or Tories make up one third of population

Naval Strategies

• British – Command of the Sea • • Blockade American ports.

Transport troops to areas of rebellion.

– • Cut off New England from middle and southern colonies.

• American – War of Attrition • Wear down British forces.

– Hudson River Valley Diplomacy • Gain European allies with large navies - France.

– Commerce Raiding • Privateering

Continental Navy

• Starting from Scratch • Never more than an inferior naval power.

– Unable to build enough ships to challenge British command of the sea.

– Had to rely on French Navy for command of the sea.

• Commerce Raiding against British shipping.

– Effectiveness improved after French Navy forced Royal Navy to concentrate their ships into fleets.

Going It Alone 1775 to 1778

The Need for an American Navy

• British control of sea lines of communication.

– Americans unable to oppose British troop movements.

– British blockades of American ports restricts commerce.

• States authorize navies: – Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.

• Privateering commences against British shipping and commerce.

– Definition of Privateering: Privately-owned vessels sanctioned by a government to seize enemy ships.

• Washington’s Navy – Seizure of gunpowder on British supply ships enroute to Boston.

– Ships commanded by Army officers with maritime experience.

Continental Navy and Marine Corps

• Authorized by the Continental Congress.

13 October 1775 - Navy Birthday • Continental Congress approves purchase of two armed vessels.

10 November 1775 - Marine Corps Birthday • Continental Congress authorizes two battalions of Marines.

• Samuel Nicholas - “First Commandant” of the Marine Corps – Tun Tavern, Philadelphia 28 November 1775 - Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies established.

December 1775 - Marine Committee appointed by Continental Congress to oversee naval affairs.

• Authorizes construction of 13 frigates.

• Debate continues over the need for naval forces: Samuel Chase of Maryland: “Maddest idea in the world.”

Early Military Operations

• American Siege of Boston (p.6) – April 1775 – March 1776 – George Washington commands America’s Continental Army.

• Battle of Bunker Hill – Royal Navy evacuates British forces to Halifax in 1776.

• American Invasion of Canada – 1775 – – Ethan Allen takes Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain.

Siege of Quebec fails.

• • General Benedict Arnold retreats to Lake Champlain - 1776.

Small fleet of shallow-draft vessels built to stop British counter-attack.

American Raid on the Bahamas (p.8) Jan 1776

• Esek Hopkins – Commander in Chief of the Fleet - converted merchantmen.

– Eventually dismissed in 1777.

• Ordered to break British blockade of the Virginia coast.

– Discretionary clause in orders allows Hopkins to change plans.

• Raid on New Providence Island, Bahamas - March 1776 – Storage area for British supplies of gunpowder and cannon.

– Sailors and Marines under Samuel Nicholas capture supplies and transport back to colonies.

General Washington 1776

• Defense of New York from British invasion.

– Aug 1776 – Prevent British from dividing the colonies.

– Continental Army defeated and forced to retreat toward Philadelphia.

• Washington crosses the Delaware.

– Christmas 1776 – Trenton – Princeton • Continental Army remains a threat to the British.

Battle of Valcour Island (p.10)

• British counter-attack across Lake Champlain to reach New York.

– British required to construct a fleet to counter Benedict Arnold’s fleet and secure lines of communication on the lake.

• Benedict Arnold loses all 15 of his ships.

– Tactical —

Failure

• Battle delays British invasion - forces their withdrawal to Canada for winter months.

– Strategic —

Victory

A GALLEY OF ARNOLD’S AT VALCOUR ISLAND

26

Battle of Saratoga Oct 1777

• Classic case of bad coordination and miscommunication: – GEN Burgoyne (Canada) • Launch 2 pronged attack to cut off and Isolate New England – GEN Howe (New York) • Decides to Attack Philadelphia first – Lord Germain (London) • Sec of Sate for the American Colonies • Americans defeat and capture General “Gentleman Johnny” Burgoyne in upstate New York.

• Washington escapes with his army intact from Philly

Strategic Implications

• Turning point of the war.

– French enter the war as America’s ally.

• French Navy: 80 ships of the line.

– Small American rebellion grows into a world war.

• Great Britain faces multiple enemies: – 1775 American Colonies – 1778 France, Spain, The Netherlands – 1780 Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Austria, and Portugal form an Armed Neutrality.

A French Ally and a Global War 1778-1783

War Shifts South

• British fighting multiple enemies all over the Atlantic • Southern Colonies seen as easier picking • Determines West Indies are more valuable than American colonies

Fleet Actions

• “General Chase” melee tactics used unsuccessfully by Royal Navy against the French.

– Battle of Ushant – Battle of Grenada – Moonlight Battle off Cape St Vincent • New view of some British admirals: – No need to strictly adhere to the formal tactics found in the Permanent Fighting Instructions.

– Admirals now allowed more freedom of action.

– Admiral Rodney develops copper sheathing to prevent fouling of ships’ hulls.

Commerce Raiding

• Capture enemy shipping using Navy ships or Privateers.

– Privateering very profitable - easy to find sailors.

– Difficult to man Continental Navy ships.

• Gustavus Conyngham - Irish American – Captured 60 British vessels in 18 months.

– Successfully dug way out of prison on 3rd attempt after capture in 1779.

• Lambert Wickes and

Reprisal

– 1st American ship in European Waters (1777) captures 23 ships.

– Transports Benjamin Franklin to France.

• John Paul Jones – Receives first salute to an American ship from French Navy.

– Ben Franklin uses his influence to get him a better ship.

John Paul Jones

“Men mean more than guns in the rating of a ship.” “I wish to have no Connection with any Ship that does not sail fast for I intend to go in harm’s way.” - 16 November 1778

Battle of Flamborough Head (p.15) 4 Sept 1778

•

Bonhomme Richard

vs. HMS

Serapis

• Result: – Cool Quotes: • John Paul Jones: “I have not yet begun to fight.” – Takes the battle to English water and English soil – Great propaganda for the Americans

Yorktown Campaign (p.18) August-October1781

• Initially poor cooperation between Continental Army and French Navy.

– General Washington - need a combined operation for victory.

• 1781 Lord Cornwallis leads British Army to Yorktown.

– Washington marches south with Continental and French troops.

• French West Indies fleet sails north under de Grasse.

– British fleet under Graves: Reinforce or evacuate Cornwallis.

• de Grasse anchors inside the Chesapeake then sorties and defeats British fleet.

– Hood rigidly adheres to Permanent Fighting Instructions. • Lord Cornwallis forced to surrender forces at Yorktown.

• Defeat at Yorktown causes the fall of the government in London thus effectively ending the war

• Comte de Grasse

Conclusion of the War

• Combined French/Spanish attack on Gibraltar defeated in 1782.

• French and British fleets battle for control of India.

• Treaty of Paris - 1783 – Independence of American colonies.

– France restores most of Great Britain’s West Indian colonies.

British Naval Policy

• Superiority over Continental Navy.

– Royal Navy used to transport Army troops in America.

– Blockade of American ports established.

• Challenged by French Navy after 1778.

• Improvements in gunnery made after defeat at the Battle of the Virginia Capes.

• Permanent Fighting Instructions finally abandoned.

– New system of signals allows more freedom for admirals to maneuver fleet to concentrate firepower.

– Change in tactics from Formal to Melee.

• Maintained naval power at the end of the war.

Colonial Naval Policy

• Sectionalism – Continental Navy – State Navies – Privateers • Commerce Raiders • Fleet Actions • French Contribution

Thoughts:

• How does $$ impact strategy and tactics?

• What actually ended the American revolution: – Political fatigue in Britain?

– American military victories?

• The British were fighting a different war than the Americans – what can we learn from that today in our current conflicts?

• What lessons can you draw out of this war that could be directly applicable to Afghanistan?

Next time: The U.S. Navy in the Napoleonic Era 1783-1815