Transcript Document

MBE
Application to key materials
- T.Vijaykumar
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Outline
Introduction
Technical data
• Effusion cells
• Growth mechanism
• RHEED
Application
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Quantum dots
HEMT
High Tc Superconductors
GMR
Summary
Invented in late 1960’s at Bell Laboratories by J. R. Arthur and
A. Y. Cho.
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Diagram of a typical MBE system growth chamber
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Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is performed with different types
of semiconducting materials like:
i) Group IV elemental semiconductors like Si, Ge, and C
ii) III-V-semiconductors: arsenides (GaAs, AlAs, InAs), antimonides
like GaSb and phosphides like InP
iii) II-VI- semiconductors: ZnSe, CdS, and HgTe
Electrons move through GaAs five times faster than through silicon.
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Features of MBE
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very low deposition rates typically 1um/hr or 1A/sec
typically in ultra-high vacuum
Uses high purity elemental charge materials.
very well controlled growth
films with good crystalline structure
often use multiple sources to grow alloy films
deposition rate is so low that substrate temperature does not need to be as high .
Epitaxy: Growth of film with a crystallographic relationship with the substrate
Types: Homoepitaxy & Heteroepitaxy.
For good epitaxy:
deposition rate -
Types of MBE
The Gas-Source MBE (GS-MBE)
III-V semiconductors,
group-V materials are hydrides such as arsine (AsH3) or phosphine (PH3)
Metalorganic MBE (MO-MBE)
group-III materials are metalorganic compounds.
e.g., TEGa and TMIn
Solid-Source MBE (SS-MBE)
group-III and -V molecular beams.
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Effusion cells
Cylindrical crucible offers good charge material
capacity, but uniformity decreases as charge
material is depleted. It offers excellent long-term
flux stability, but permits large shutter flux
transients.
Conical crucible offers reduced charge material
capacity, excellent uniformity, and poor long-term flux
stability, and permits large shutter flux transients.
SUMO crucible offers excellent charge
material capacity, excellent uniformity,
excellent long-term flux stability, and minimal
shutter-related flux transients.
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- made of Ta, Mo, and pyrolytic boron nitride (PBN)
- do not decompose or outgas impurities even when heated to 1400ºC.
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Valved cracker Effusion cell
- combines the evaporation and cracking of elements like P,S, As, Se, Te etc.
Technical Data
Heating System
Radiation heating, tantalum wires with PBN
insulators
Temperature range
100 °C ...800 °C bulk zone
100 °C ...1000 °C cracker
Temperature stability
<= 0.1 K depending on the PID controller
Bake out temperature
250 °C
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MBE growth mechanism.
Atoms arriving at the substrate surface may undergo
• absorption to the surface,
• surface migration,
• incorporation into the crystal lattice,
• thermal desorption.
depends strongly on the temperature of the substrate..
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Growth modes:
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At very high temperature of substrate, there are many different possible surface
diffusion mechanisms:
Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier
epitaxial growth is ensured by• very low rates of impinging atoms,
• migration on the surface and
• subsequent surface reactions
Depending on the migration rates, different growth modes can result:
- high migration rate (IBAD is followed)
Frank vander merwe growth mode.
- high rate of incoming atoms and high Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, island
growth will occur.
Volmer-Weber or Stranski-Krastanov growth modes.
- Stranski-Krastanov growth is possible in a heteroepitaxial system.
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Reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED).
sensitive to surface changes, either due to structural changes or due to adsorption.
1. to calibrate growth rates,
2. observe removal of oxides from the surface,
3. calibrate the substrate temperature,
4. monitor the arrangement of the surface atoms,
5. determine the proper arsenic overpressure,
6. give feedback on surface morphology,
7. provide information about growth kinetics
A high energy beam (3-100 keV) is directed at the sample surface at a grazing
angle.
- distance between the streaks - surface lattice unit cell size.
- atomically flat surface - sharp RHEED patterns.
- rougher surface - diffused RHEED pattern.
layer-by-layer growth mode - RHEED oscillations.
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RHEED is sensitive for surface structures and reconstructions.
a) GaAs(100) - 1x1
b) GaAs(100) - 2x1
electron beam is incident in the (110) with 8.6 keV
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Interpretation of some RHEED patterns
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Different stages of layer-by-layer growth by nucleation of 2D islands and the
corresponding intensity of the diffracted RHEED beam.
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(a) Transmission through high and wide crystal;
(b) Transmission through high and narrow crystal;
(c) Transmission through short and wide crystal;
(d) Diffraction from nearly flat asperities.
RHEED intensity oscillations:
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- direct measure of growth rates in MBE.
- oscillation frequency corresponds to the monolayer growth rate.
- incident angle dependence of the oscillations suggest that interference between
electrons scattering from the underlying layer and the partially grown layer contribute
to these oscillations.
- magnitude of the RHEED oscillations damps because as the growth progresses,
islands nucleate before the previous layer is finished.
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Beam Equivalent Pressure
- To measure the growth rate.
- Proportional to the flux at the sample surface and hence the growth rate.
- The biggest difficulty is, the gauge gets coated.
Epitaxial Growth of AlxGa1-xAs
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Substrate temperatures - 580ºC-650ºC.
Requires an As overpressure to prevent the surface from becoming Ga rich.
GaAs, there is a large window for which there is both unity sticking and sufficient
mobility.
Ternary or quaternary compounds - the window becomes smaller
- differences in the relative bond strengths of the different group III adatoms.
RHEED can be used to determine the minimum amount of As required to maintain
the proper stoichiometry by measuring the incorporation ratio.
Values of the incorporation ratio for GaAs is 1.3 to 1.8.
(100) is the predominant substrate orientation for MBE growth of compound
semiconductors.
Growth of InGaAlAs on InP:
Incorporating In into AlxGa1-xAs will decrease the bandgap.
In.52Al.48As - 1.49 eV  0.74 eV - In.53Ga.47As
- small enough bandgap to detect light at the important wavelengths of 1.3 mm and
1.55 mm.
Material
Lattice
Constant
(Å)
Mismatch
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GaAs
5.653
AlAs
5.661
InP
5.869
-3.7% on
InP
-3.5% on
InP
+3.7% on
GaAs
Lattice constants and mismatch for GaAs, AlAs and InP.
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Quantum dots
structures based on highly lattice mismatched materials.
mean free path and the de Broglie wavelength of free carriers exceed the critical
sizes of structures.
carriers experience a three-dimensional quantum confinement.
InAs grows layer-by-layer till critical coverage - wetting layer (WL).
After θc=1.6 ML (w~0.5 nm), Stranski-Krastanow 3D growth occurs.
relaxation of the elastic energy which builds up as the thickness of mismatched
epilayers increases.
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AFM image of InAs/GaAs
Quantumdots.
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Mismatched heteroepitaxial systems for quantum dots:
III-V compounds
arsenides (InGaAs/AlGaAs ,InAs/InGaAs, InAlGaAs /AlGaAs )
phosphides (InAs/InP, InP/InGaP ),
antimonides and nitrides (GaN/AlN),
IV-IV compounds
Ge/Si and SiGe/Si
II-VI compounds
CdSe/ZnSe and
Mixed-group compounds
InAs/Si.
Bennett, Magno, and Shanabrook Appl. Phys. Lett. 68 (4), 22 (1996)
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E = Eg + Ee + Eh
E - emission energy
Eg - quantumdot bandgap energy
Ee - electron confinement energy
Eh - hole confinement energy
Nt: Exciton binding energy is neglected.
Tuning QD emission
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C. K. Chia et al., J. Crystal. Growth, 288, 57-60 (2006)
High Tc Superconductivity:
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increases in the Tc in thin films of copper oxide
superconductors
hydrostatic pressures
compressive epitaxial strain.
Under compressive epitaxial strain a much larger
increase in Tc is possible. Requires the choice of a
suitable system and substrate combination
The two essential structural features in copper oxide
superconductors –
1. CuO2 planes
2. charge reservoirs (CR)
The possible control knobs are:
1. the distance between the magnetic (black arrows) Cu atoms dab,
2. the corrugation of the CuO2 planes alpha
3. the thickness of CR dCR
4. the interlayer distance between two consecutive CuO2 planes dIL
5. the distance between the charge reservoir and the CuO2 plane dCT.
the lattice deformations associated with the strain fundamentally modify the
energy scales, leading to the formation and condensation of the superconducting pairs.
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"214" film on a SrTiO3 substrate,
the Cu and O atoms of the CuO2 planes are expanded.
"214" thin film on a SrLaAlO4 substrate
in-plane compression and an out-of-plane expansion.
- redox reaction at interface is a serious problem fabricating tunnel junctions
using high-Tc Cuprates,
J. P. Locquet et al., Nature 394, 453 (1998)
MgB2 a novel material for high Tc superconductor.
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The graphite-like array of boron (shown in black)
-has great promise for superconducting electronics
operated at T ~ 20 K.
Josephson tunnel junctions (MgB2/AlOx/MgB2)
fabricated on sapphire -C substrates below 300° C.
K. Ueda, S. Saito, K. Semba, T. Makimoto and M. Naito, APL 86 , 172502 (2005)
Gallium Nitride (GaN) HEMT
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Dr. Takashi Mimura - inventor of HEMT (
- FET with a junction between two materials with different band gaps as the
channel instead of an n-doped region.
Features of GaN HEMT
high frequency power transistors for RF transmission applications
covering the 1-50 GHz band.
inherently higher transconductance,
good thermal management and
higher cutoff frequencies.
prime candidate for high power microwave applications.
M. Aslf Khan, J. N. Kuznia, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett., 65(9):1121
extremely low noise device in terrestrial and space telecommunications
systems, radio telescopes in the area of astronomy, DBS receivers and a
car navigation receivers.
In 1985, HEMT was announced as a unique microwave semiconductor
device with the lowest noise characteristics in the world.
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- can receive TV programs from satellites 36,000Km above the ground.
- The antenna is less than 30 centimeters in diameter,
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GMR heterostructures:
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- prepared in 1986, using MBE
- magnetoresistance is much larger than that of the intrinsic magnetoresistance
of the Fe layers themselves
Oscillatory coupling - a very general property of almost all transition-metal
magnetic multilayered systems
the nonferromagnetic layer comprises one of the 3d, 4d, or 5d transition metals or
one of the noble metals
The oscillation period was found to be just a few atomic layers, typically about 10
Å, but varying up to ~20 Å.
- ferromagnetic cobalt layers separated by thin copper layers, was found to exhibit
very large GMR effects even at room temperature
GMR sandwiches can achieve sensitivities to such fields of perhaps as much as
five hundred times greater than conventional materials.
For copper thickness (typically 1.9 nm) - anti-parallel magnetic coupling between
successive cobalt layers in zero applied field.
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the magnitude of the interlayer exchange coupling decreases much more rapidly
with increasing Cu thickness.
"spin valve" effect:
GMR read heads allows the reading of extremely small magnetic bits at an areal
density of 2.69 gigabits per square inch.
One minute please…………..
IBM J . RES. DEVELOP. VOL 42 NO. 1 JANUARY 1998
Summary
- MBE is a versatile technique for device fabrication.
- A good lab for studying Molecular dynamics and surface mechanism.
- The primary application for MBE - grown layers is the fabrication of
electronic devices .
www.research.ibm.com/research/demos/gmr/1.swf
www.research.ibm.com/research/demos/gmr/2.swf
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Appropriate other meanings of MBE
• Mind Boggling Experiment
• Mostly Broken Equipment
• Mega-Buck Evaporator
• Medieval Brain Extractor
• Money Buys Everything
• Management Bullshits Everyone
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