Transcript Document
Chapter 2. Transmission Line Theory
Sept. 29 th , 2008 1
2.1 Transmission Lines
• A transmission line is a distributed-parameter network, where voltages and currents can vary in magnitude and phase over the length of the line.
Lumped Element Model for a Transmission Line • Transmission lines usually consist of 2 parallel conductors.
• A short segment
Δz
of transmission line can be modeled as a lumped-element circuit.
2
Figure 2.1
Voltage and current definitions and equivalent circuit for an incremental length of transmission line. (a) Voltage and current definitions. (b) Lumped-element equivalent circuit.
3
• R = series resistance per unit length for both conductors • L = series inductance per unit length for both conductors • G = shunt conductance per unit length • C = shunt capacitance per unit length • Applying KVL and KCL,
i z t
t
v z
t
4
• Dividing (2.1) by
Δz
v z t
z
i z t
z
L
C
and
t
t Δz
0, Time-domain form of the transmission line, or telegrapher, equation.
• For the sinusoidal steady-state condition with cosine-based phasors,
R
dz
(
G
dz
5
Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
• By eliminating either
I
(
z
) or
V
(
z
): 2 ( ) 2
a dz
2 2 ( ) 2
dz
2 where
j
(
R
complex propagation constant. (
α
constant,
β
= phase constant) ) the = attenuation • Traveling wave solutions to (2.4):
V e
0
z
+
V e
0
z
I e
0
z
I e
0
z
(2.6) Wave propagation in +z directon Wave propagation in z directon 6
• Applying (2.3a) to the voltage of (2.6),
R
V e
0
z
+
V e
0
z
• If a
characteristic impedance
, Z 0 , is defined as
Z
0
R
R G
, (2.7)
V
0
I
0
Z
0
V
0
I
0 • (2.6) can be rewritten
V
0
Z
0
e
z
V
0
Z
0
e
z
(2.8) 7
• Converting the phasor voltage of (2.6) to the time domain:
V
0 cos(
z
+ )
e
z
V
0 cos(
z
)
e
z
(2.9) • The wavelength of the traveling waves: = 2 (2.10) • The phase velocity of the wave is defined as the speed at which a constant phase point travels down the line,
v p
=
dz
=
dt f
(2.11) 8
Lossless Transmission Lines
• R = G = 0 gives
LC
, 0 (2.12)
j
j
LC
or
Z
0 =
L
(2.13)
C
• The general solutions for voltage and current on a lossless transmission line:
V e
0
I
0
Z
0
e
+
V e
0
I e
0 , (2.14) 9
• The wavelength on the line: = 2 = 2
LC
(2.15) • The phase velocity on the line:
v p
= = 1
LC
(2.16) 10
2.2 Field Analysis of Transmission Lines
• Transmission Line Parameters Figure 2.2 (p. 53)
Field lines on an arbitrary TEM transmission line.
11
• The time-average stored magnetic energy for 1 m section of line:
W m
L
4
S
• The circuit theory gives |
I
0 | 2
S
W m
0 2 | / 4 • Similarly,
C
|
V
0 | 2
S W e
4
S
,
W e
| 0 2 | / 4 12
• Power loss per unit length due to the finite conductivity (from (1.130))
P c
R s
2
C
1
C
2 • Circuit theory
P c
0 2 | / 2
R
|
I R s
| 2 0
C
1
C
2 (H || S) • Time-average power dissipated per unit length in a lossy dielectric (from (1.92))
P d
2
S
13
• Circuit theory
P d
| 0 2 | / 2
G
|
V
0 | 2
C
1
C
2 • Ex 2.1 Transmission line parameters of a coaxial line • Table 2.1 14
The Telegrapher Equations Derived form Field Analysis of a Coaxial Line
• Eq. (2.3) can also be obtained from ME.
• A TEM wave on the coaxial line: E z = H z = 0.
• Due to the azimuthal symmetry, no
φ
-variation
ə
/
ə
φ
= 0
• The fields inside the coaxial line will satisfy ME.
H
j
H j
E
where
j
15
ˆ ˆ
E
z
H
z
ˆ
E
z
ˆ
H
z
z
ˆ
z
ˆ 1 1 (
E
)
j
(
H
)
j H
E
ˆ
H
) ˆ
E
) Since the z-components must vanish,
E
,
H
From the B.C.,
E φ H
0 = 0 at
ρ = a, b
E φ
= 0 everywhere
E
z
j
H
,
H
z
j
E
E
16
h z
z
j
z
j
The voltage between 2 conductors
b
a E
b
a d
b a
The total current on the inner conductor at
ρ = a
V z
z
2 0
j
2 2
z
j
j
) 2
z
z
(
G
17
Propagation Constant, Impedance, and Power Flow for the Lossless Coaxial Line
• From Eq. (2.24) 2
E
z
2
E
0 2 • For lossless media, • The wave impedance
Z w
E
H
LC
Ex 2.1
• The characteristic impedance of the coaxial line
Z
0
V
0
I
0
E
2
H
2 2 18
• Power flow ( in the
z
direction) on the coaxial line may be computed from the Poynting vector as
P
1 2
s
ds
1 2 2
b
a
2
V I
0 0 2 1 2
V I
0 0 • The flow of power in a transmission line takes place entirely via the
E & H fields between the 2 conductors
; power is not transmitted through the conductors themselves. 19
2.3 The Terminated Lossless Transmission Lines
The total voltage and current on the line
V e
0
V
0
Z
0
e
+
V e
0
V
0
Z
0
e
, (2.34) 20
• The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance, so at
z
(0)
Z L
=
V I
(0) =
V
0
V
0
V
0
V
0
Z
0
V
0
Z L Z L
Z
0
Z
0
V
0 = 0 • The voltage reflection coefficient:
V
0
V
0
Z L Z L
Z
0
Z
0 (2.35) • The total voltage and current on the line:
V
0
e
+
e
,
V
0
Z
0
e
e
(2.36) 21
• It is seen that the voltage and current on the line consist of a superposition of an incident and reflected wave.
standing waves
• When Γ= 0 matched.
• For the time-average power flow along the line at the point
z
:
P avg
1 2 Re 1 2
V
0 2
Z
0
e
2
e
2 2 1 2
V
0 2 1 2
Z
0 22
• When the load is mismatched, not all of the available power from the generator is delivered to the load. This “loss” is return loss (RL): RL = -20 log|Γ| dB • If the load is matched to the line, Γ= 0 and |V(z)| = |V 0 + | (constant) “ flat ” .
• When the load is mismatched,
V
0 1
e
2
V
0 1
e
2
V
0 1
e j
( 2
l
) (2.39)
V
max
V
0 1 ,
V
min
V
0 1 (2.40) 23
• A measure of the mismatch of a line, called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
SWR
1 1 (1< VSWR<∞) • From (2.39), the distance between 2 successive voltage maxima (or minima) is
l =
2
π/
2
β = λ/
2 (2
βl =
2
π
), while the distance between a maximum and a minimum is
l = π/
2
β = λ/
4.
• From (2.34) with
z = -l
,
V e
0
V e
0 (0)
e
2 (2.42) 24
• At a distance
l = -z
,
Z in
V
(
l
)
I
(
l
)
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
V
0
V
0
e e
e
e
Z
0 1
e
2 1
e
2 (2.43) (
Z L
(
Z Z L
Z e
0 )
L
cos
Z e
0 )
l
Z
0
Z L Z
0 cos
l jZ
0
jZ L
tan tan
jZ
0
jZ L
l l
(
Z L
(
Z L
sin sin
l
l Z e
0 )
Z e
0 ) (2.44) Transmission line impedance equation 25
Special Cases of Terminated Transmission Lines
• Short-circuited line Z L = 0
V
0
e
Γ= -1
e
V
0
Z
0
e
e
2
jV
0 sin
z
, 2
V
0
Z
0 cos
z Z in
jZ
0 tan
l
(2.45) 26
Figure 2.6
(a) Voltage, (b) current, and (c) impedance (R
in
= 0 or
) variation along a short-circuited transmission line.
27
• Open-circuited line Z L = ∞
V
0
e
Γ= 1
e
V
0
Z
0
e
e Z in
jZ
0 cot
l
2
V
0 cos
z
, 2
jV
0 sin
z
(2.46)
Z
0 28
Figure 2.8
(a) Voltage, (b) current, and (c) impedance (R
in
= 0 or
) variation along an open circuited transmission line.
29
• Terminated transmission lines with special lengths. • If
l
= λ/2,
Z in = Z L
.
• If the line is a quarter-wavelength long, or,
l
λ/4+
n
λ/2 (
n
= 1,2,3…),
Z in = Z
0 2
/Z L .
quarter-wave transformer = 30
Figure 2.9 (p. 63)
Reflection and transmission at the junction of two transmission lines with different characteristic impedances.
31
2.4 The Smith Chart
• A graphical aid that is very useful for solving transmission line problems.
Derivation of the Smith Chart
• Essentially a polar plot of the Γ(= |Γ
|e jθ
).
• This can be used to convert from Γto normalized impedances (or admittances), and vice versa, using the impedance (or admittance) circles printed on the chart.
32
Figure 2.10 (p. 65)
The Smith chart.
33
• If a lossless line of
Z
0 is terminated with
Z L
,
z L = Z L /Z
0 (normalized load impedance),
j
z L z L
1 1
e j
z L
1 1
e e j
• Let Γ= Γ
r r L
jx L
(1 (1 +
j
Γ
i
, and
z L r i = r r L
L + jx L
.
1 (1
r r
) 2 2
i
i
2
r j j i x L
(1 2
i r
) 2
i
2
r
1
r L
r L
2
i
1 1
r L
2 ,
r
1 2
i
1
x L
2 1
x L
2 34
• The Smith chart can also be used to graphically solve the transmission line impedance equation of (2.44).
Z in
Z
0 1
e
2 1
e
2 (2.57) • If we have plotted |Γ|
e jθ
looking into a length
l
at the load, Z
in
seen of transmission line terminates with
z L
can be found by rotating the point clockwise an amount of 2 βl around the center of the chart.
35
• Smith chart has scales around its periphery calibrated in electrical lengths, toward and away from the “generator”.
• The scales over a range of 0 to 0.5 λ.
36
Ex 2.2
Z L = 40+j70,
l
= 0.3λ, find Γ
l
, Γ in and
Z
in Figure 2.11 (p. 67)
Smith chart for Example 2.2.
37
The Combined Impedance-Admittance Smith Chart
• Since a complete revolution around the Smith chart corresponds to a line length of λ/2, a λ/4 transformation is equivalent to rotating the chart by 180 ° . • Imaging a give impedance (or admittance) point across the center of the chart to obtain the corresponding admittance (or impedance) point.
38
Ex 2.3
Z L = 100+j50, Y L , Y in ? when
l
= 0.15λ Figure 2.12 (p. 69)
ZY Smith chart with solution for Example 2.3.
39
The Slotted Line
• A transmission line allowing the sampling of E field amplitude of a standing wave on a terminated line.
• With this device the SWR and the distance of the first voltage minimum from the load can be measured, from this data Z L • Z L is complex measured.
can be determined.
2 distinct quantities must be • Replaced by vector network analyzer.
40
Figure 2.13 (p. 70)
An X-band waveguide slotted line.
41
• Assume for a certain terminated line, we have measured the SWR on the line and
l min
, the distance from the load to the first voltage | minimum on the line.
SWR SWR
1 1 • Minimum occurs when
e j
( 2
l
) • The phase of Γ = • Load impedance
Z L
2
l
min
Z
0 1 1 1 42
Ex 2.4
• With a short circuit load, voltage minima at z = 0.2, 2.2, 4.2 cm • With unknown load, voltage minima at z = 0.72, 2.72, 4.72 cm • λ = 4 cm, • If the load is at 4.2 cm, l min cm = 0.37 λ = 4.2 – 2.72 = 1.48 ?, ?,
Z L
?
43
Figure 2.14 (p. 71)
Voltage standing wave patterns for Example 2.4. (a) Standing wave for short-circuit load. (b) Standing wave for unknown
44
load.
Figure 2.15 (p. 72)
Smith chart for Example 2.4.
45
2.5 The Quarterwave Transformer
Impedance Viewpoint
Z in
Z
1
R L Z
1
jZ
1
jR L
tan tan
l l
• For
βl
= (2π/λ)(λ/4) = π/2
Z in
Z
1 2
R L
• In order for Γ = 0, Z in = Z 0
Z
1
Z R
0
L
46
Figure 2.16 (p. 73)
The quarter-wave matching transformer.
47
Ex 2.5 Frequency Response of a Quarter-Wave Transformer
• R L = 100, Z 0
Z
1
Z R
0
L
= 50 70.71
|
Z in Z in
Z
0
Z
0
l
2 0 4 0
f f
0 48
Figure 2.17 (p. 74)
Reflection coefficient versus normalized frequency for the quarter-wave transformer of Example 2.5.
49
The Multiple Reflection Viewpoint
Figure 2.18 (p. 75)
Multiple reflection analysis of the quarter wave transformer.
50
1
Z
1
Z
1
Z
0
Z
0 , 2
Z
0
Z
0
Z
1
Z
1 1 , 3
R L R L
Z
1
Z
1
T
1
Z
1 2
Z
1
Z
0 ,
T
2
Z
1 2
Z
0
Z
0 1
T T
1 2 3
T T
1 2 3
T T
1 2 2 3 1
T T
1 2 3
n
0 ( 2 3 )
n
1 1
T T
1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
T T
1 2 3 51
• Numerator 1 1 2 3 1 3 (
Z
1
T T
1 2
Z
0 3 1 )(
R
(
L Z
1
Z
1
Z
0 3 ( 1
T T
1 2 ) )(
R R L
L
Z
1
Z
1 ) )(
Z
1
Z
0 ) (
Z
1 2(
Z
1 2
Z
0 )(
Z R
0
L R L
)
Z
1 ) 52
2.6 Generator and Load Mismatches
• Because both the generator and load are mismatched, multiple reflections can occur on the line. • In the steady state, the net result is a single wave traveling toward the load, and a single reflected wave traveling toward the generator.
• In Fig. 2.19, where
z = -l
,
Z in
l
Z
0 1 1
l
l e
2
e
2
Z l Z l
Z
0
Z
0 (2.68)
Z
0
Z Z
0
l
jZ
0
jZ l
tan tan
l l
(2.67) 53
Figure 2.19 (p. 77)
Transmission line circuit for mismatched load and generator.
54
• The voltage on the line:
V
(
l V g Z in Z in
Z g
V
0 (
e
l e
)
V
0
V g Z in Z in
Z e g
1
l e
(2.70) By (2.67) &
V
0
V g Z
0
Z
0
Z g
1
e
g e
2 (2.71) • Power delivered to the load:
g SWR
1
l
1
l Z g Z g
Z
0
Z
0
P l
1 Re 2 1 2 Re |
V in
| 2 1
Z in
1 2 Re |
V g
| 2 1 2 |
V g
| 2 (
R in
R g
) 2
R in
(
X in
X g
) 2 (2.39)
Z in Z in
Z g
2 1
Z in
55
• Case 1: the load is matched to the line,
Z l
Γ
l
= 0, SWR = 1,
Z in = Z
0 ,
= Z
0 ,
P l
1 2 |
V g
| 2 (
Z
0
Z
0
R g
) 2
X g
2 (2.40) • Case 2: the generator is matched to the input impedance of a mismatched line,
Z in = Z
g
P l
1 2 |
V g
| 2 4
R g
2
R g
X g
2 (2.41) • If
Z g
P l
R in
is fixed, to maximize
P l
, (
R in
R g
) 2 1 (
X in
X g
) 2 2
R in
(
R in
(
R in
R g
) 2 (
X in R g
)
X g
) 2 2 0 56
or
P l
X in
or
R g
2
R in
2 (
X in
X g
) 2 0 2
X in
(
X in
X g
) (
R in
R g
) 2 (
X in
X g
) 2
X in
(
X in
X g
) 0 2 0 • Therefore,
R in = R g
and
X in
• Under these conditions
= -X g
, or
Z in = Z g * P l
1 2 |
V g
| 2 1 4
R g
(2.44) • Finally, note that neither matching for zero reflection (
Z l = Z
0 ), nor conjugate matching (
Z in = Z g
* ), necessary yields a system with the best efficiency. 57
2.7 Lossy Transmission Lines
58