Transcript Sato and Iwasawa poster

The British Society for
Population Studies,
9 - 11 September 2013
Single, sexless and infertile:
Sexuality aspects of very low fertility in Japan
Ryuzaburo Sato and Miho Iwasawa
Figure 1. Annual Number of Births and Total Fertility Rates in
Japan: 1947–2012
(Thousand)
"Hinoe-Uma(fire
horse) year in
1966,TFR=1.58"
2,500
Number of
live births
4.0
"1.57 shock"
60
40
3.0
2.0
30
600
20
400
1,000
40
30
25
2015
2010
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
1960
1955
0.0
1950
0
Year
Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Vital Statistics of Japan
Total
10
Rate
5
10
200
0
20～24
2015
2010
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
1965
0
1960
0
1955
1.0
Male
15
TFR
500
Femal
20
800
Number
TFR=1.26 in
2005
1,500
Year
Sources: Eugenic Protection Statistics (1955-1995), Maternal Body Protection
Statistics (1996-2001), and Report on Public Health Administration (2002-2011),
Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare.
Figure 5. Trend in Annual Rate of Induced Abortions by Age Group
25～29
30～34
35～39
Age
40～44
45～49
Source: The 2nd Danjyo no Seikatsu to Ishiki ni kansuru Chosa, 2004, Japan
Family Planning Association,INC.
Note: Married men and women between 16 and 49 years old. "Sexless" here
is defined as not having sexual intercourse for more than a month.
Figure 9. Experience of Sexual Intercourse
(%)
70
100
(‰)
90
2005
1992
1992
1997
1997
2010
50
2002
40
2010
Divorced/Widow ed
1987
Divorced/Widow ed
35～39
2002
2005
2005
2010
2010
32
30
10
2010
2005
Year
2000
1945
Cohabitation
2011
3rd birth
29.0
2nd birth
Sources: The 1st through 24th National Survey on Family Planning (19502000) , the 1st Survey on Population, Family and Generation (2004)(the
Population Problems Research Council, the Mainichi Newspapers), and
Japanese National Fertility Surveys (1977, 1987, 1997, 2005)(NIPSSR).
Note: Married women aged 16-49.
Celibacy
29.4
28
0
Figure 3. Partnership Transition (1) to Moderately Low Fertility or
(2) to Very Low Fertility
2005
4th and higher order
20～24
Source: Japanese National Fertlity Surveys (NIPSSR)
1999
34
20
1995
2002
1997
1990
1997
18～19
30
1992
36
Currently practice
Have practiced
Never practiced
No answer
2005
1985
2005
Figure 10. Mean Age of Women at First Marriage and Childbearing
in Japan: 1954–2011
60
1980
2002
35～39
26
1st birth
24
First marriage
22
2015
1987
30～34
1987
(%)
2010
Married
Not stated
1975
Married
Not stated
2000
70
2010
1995
2010
Year
Source: National Survey on Sexual Behavior in Youth, the Japanese
Association for Sex Education.
Figure 6. Trends in Contraceptive Practices of Married Women
1970
2005
2002
1965
2002
1990
1997
1985
1997
1993
1992
(3) Increasing age at first marriage and growing
concerns about infertility
0
Source: See Figure 4.
1980
1992
30～34
Year
1975
1987
Lover
Junior high school
1987
1987
25～29
25～29
Fiancé
Lover
10
1970
2010
Fiancée
30～34
2005
Year
Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Vital Statistics of Japan
Married
Births
(1) Moderately Low Fertility
Table 1. Concerns about Infertility and Treatment Experience, by Presence of Child and Wife’s Age: 2010
Presence of a child
Age of wife
Births
Concerns about infertility/treatment experience
Total
(Number of
Have never worried
cases)
about infertility
Have worried
about infertility
Celibacy
Total
Married
(2) Very Low Fertility
Source: Sato (2008)
In 2011, the average age at first marriage for wives
increased to 29.0 years and that for mothers giving birth
to their first child also rose to 29.4 years, both hitting
record highs (Figure 10). The 2010 Japanese National
Fertility Survey, conducted by the National Institute of
Population and Social Security Research, showed that a
considerable number of couples worry about infertility
(Table 1) .
This evidence from Japan strongly suggests that the
study concerning aspects of sexuality may be powerful
to explain variations in fertility across industrialized
countries.
Figure 7. Methods in Contraception of Married Women in 2005
Celibacy
Married
It seems puzzling that Japanese fertility is declining
while their reported number of induced abortions has
continuously decreased (Sato, Shiraishi and Bando
2008) (Figures 4 and 5) and contraceptive prevalence is
relatively low compared with other industrial nations
(Figure 6). Furthermore, the use of medical methods
such as oral contraceptives, intrauterine device (IUD)
usage and voluntary sterilization are extremely low (Sato
and Iwasawa, 2006)(Figure 7). Therefore, we speculate
that the frequency of sexual intercourse among married
couples may have recently decreased in Japan. Although
there are few accurate data available (Moriki 2012), a
series of nationwide sexuality surveys conducted by the
Japan Family Planning Association indicated a very low
frequency of sexual intercourse among Japanese
(Figures 8 and 9).
Senior high
school, male
1965
2010
2002
20
under 20
1960
2005
10 45-49
0
1945
2002
40-44
25～29
1981
1997
20-24
1960
1997
20
30
1955
1992
30
1974
1992
Not in any relationship
w ith the opposite sex
1950
1987
Senior high
school, female
1945
1987
20～24
20～24
Have a friend of
the opposit sex
Not in any relationship
w ith the opposite sex
40
40
2005
2010
Have a friend of the
opposit sex
35～39
50
2015
2010
University,
female
35-39
2010
2005
60
2002
University,
male
50
2005
2002
70
2000
1997
100
1995
1997
(％)
1990
1992
80
1985
1992
60
1980
1987
40
1975
1987
20
60
1970
0
1965
100
1960
(％ )
1955
80
1955
60
1950
40
1950
20
18～19
18～19
0
【Female】
30-34
25-29
80
2005
Figure 2. Partnership Status by Age Group
1992
There is possibly a deep-rooted Familism, or familyoriented viewpoint, in countries with very low fertility
like Japan. In other words, the Japanese have a very
strong focus on family and vertical relationships, such
as between parent and child, and there is less focus on
horizontal relationships, such as the partnership
relationships (Figure 2). In terms of the relationship
between types of partnership and the ways in which
fertility has changed, we can draw an explanation. In
countries with strong horizontal relationships or a
‘couple culture’, a decline in marriage rate does not
necessarily result in a subsequent decline in fertility
due to the compensatory increase in cohabitation and
extramarital birth (Figure 3, the upper right circle).
Conversely, in countries with a weak couple culture,
the decline in marriage rate directly lead to lower
fertility, often to the point of very low fertility (Figure
3, the lower right circle).
(%)
50
1,000
(2) Changing patterns of sexual behaviour
45
5.0
2,000
1987
(1) Strong Familism and weak ‘couple culture’
Figure 8. Proportion of Sexless Couples by Age Group: 2004
35
1,200
【Male】
Atoh (1998) referred to Japan’s weakness of dating
culture, and suggested that the tendency that young
men and women are not active enough to find partners,
would be one of the causes of very low fertility in
Japan (e.g. Sato and Iwasawa, 2008). Moreover, some
researchers are considering the possibility that
fecundity has been declining in Japan. Under these
circumstances, to look at sexuality aspect and discuss
the their impact on fertility would be fruitful. By
looking at government statistics and the evidence from
the publicized survey data, this paper discuss the
following three points.
Figure 4. Trend in Annual Number/Rate of Induced Abortions:
1955 - 2011
(Thousand)
(‰)
6.0 1,400
3,000
1945
The total fertility rate in Japan has continuously
dropped since the mid-1970s, hitting the lowest level
of 1.26 in 2005, after which it has been languishing at
around 1.4 (Figure 1). Since the beginning of the
1990s, strong concerns have been focused on the
causes of low fertility. Among many explanations, the
conflict between continuing work and childbearing for
women due to its excessive opportunity cost is the
most predominant. Government policy measures increasing nursing facilities, establishing childcare
leaves, improving the employment system - have been
primarily aimed toward mitigating such conflict. On
the other hand few researchers have investigated
sexuality or biomedical aspects of very low fertility.
Births
(Re-listed)
Currently w orried
Have not visited
medical institution
Have undergone
(Re-listed) Are undergoing
examination or treatment
treatment
Not
stated
Not
stated
Total
100.0%
(6,705)
59.4%
31.1
5.5
14.5
16.4
1.5
0.2
9.5
20-29
100.0
( 652)
65.3
28.1
10.6
17.8
10.1
2.6
0.2
6.6
Withdrawal
Condom
30-39
100.0
(2,866)
56.7
36.5
8.2
18.3
17.8
2.3
0.3
6.9
Rhythm
Others
40-49
100.0
(3,185)
60.7
26.8
1.9
10.4
16.3
0.5
0.1
12.5
Oral pill
IUD
Total
100.0%
( 914)
40.6%
52.2
26.8
23.3
28.6
8.4
0.3
7.2
Male sterilization
Feale sterilization
20-29
100.0
( 194)
50.0
44.3
24.7
27.3
17.0
7.2
0.0
5.7
30-39
100.0
( 461)
41.2
52.5
34.3
25.8
26.0
10.8
0.7
6.3
40-49
100.0
( 258)
32.2
57.8
15.1
15.9
41.9
5.0
0.0
10.1
N.A.
Source: Japanese National Fertility Survey in 2005 (NIPSSR)
Childless
couples
Source: The 14th Japanese National Fertility Survey in 2010 (NIPSSR)
REFERENCES
Atoh, Makoto (1998) “Traditional family values of unmarried women: In relation to the phenomenal rise in the proportion never married” in Summary of the Twenty-fourth National Survey on Family Planning, Tokyo: The Mainichi Shimbun, pp.117-149.
Moriki, Yoshie (2012) “Mothering, co-sleeping, and sexless marriages: Implications for the Japanese population structure” The Journal of Social Science (International Christian University, Tokyo), No. 74, pp.27-45.
Sato, Ryuzaburo and Miho Iwasawa (2006) “Contraceptive use and induced abortion in Japan: How is it so unique among the developed countries?” The Japanese Journal of Population, Vol.4, No.1, pp. 33-54.
Sato, Ryuzaburo and Miho Iwasawa (2008) “Does promoting reproductive health benefit Japanese fertility?: New policy dimensions of very low fertility” (a paper presented at the International Conference on Low Fertility and Reproductive Health
in East and Southeast Asia, IUSSP Panel on Policies in the Context of Low Fertility, Tokyo, 12-14 November 2008).
Sato, Ryuzaburo, Noriko Shiraishi, and Reiko Bando (2008) Induced Abortion in Japan: A Demographic Analysis of Its Trends and Causes (Working Paper Series (E) No.22), Tokyo: National Institute of Population and Social Security Research.