Transcript Document

ESSENTIALS OF A&P
FOR EMERGENCY CARE
CHAPTER
4
The Cells: The Raw
Materials and Building
Blocks
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
Bruce J. Colbert • Jeff Ankney • Karen T. Lee • Bryan E. Bledsoe
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Multimedia Asset Directory
Slide 51
Slide 80
Slide 81
Slide 82
Cell Structure Animation
Handwashing and Gloving Video
Lab Technicians Video
Cytology Video
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Introduction
• The cell is the basic building block of the
human body.
• Cells of a similar type form tissues that
function to work together in an organ,
while organs perform special functions to
create a system.
• Systems work together to form a
functioning human body.
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Learning Objectives
• List and describe the various parts of a cell
and explain their functions.
• Describe the types of active and passive
transport within cells.
• Explain the process of cellular mitosis.
• Explain cellular respiration.
• Differentiate between bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and protozoa.
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Pronunciation Guide
Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.
benign (bee NINE)
capsid (CAP sid)
centrioles (SEN tree olz)
centrosomes (SEN tre soamz)
chromatin (CROW ma tin)
cilia (SILL ee ah)
cytoplasm (SIGH toe plazm)
deoxyribonucleic acid (dee OK see RYE bow new
KLEE ick)
endocytosis (en doe sigh TOE sis)
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Pronunciation Guide
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endoplasmic reticulum (EN doh PLAZ mic ri TIH
cue lum)
exocytosis (EX toh sigh TOH sis)
flagella (flah GELL ah)
fungi (FUN jie)
glycolysis (glie KOLL eh sis)
Golgi apparatus (GOAL jee app ah RA tuss)
lysosomes (LIE soh soamz)
malignant (mah LIG nant)
metastasis (meh TASS tuh sis)
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Pronunciation Guide
Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.
mitochondria (MITE oh KAHN dree ah)
mycelia (my SEE lee ah)
organelles (OR gan ELZ)
osmosis (ahz MOE sis)
phagocytosis (FAG oh sigh TOH sis)
pinocytosis (PIE no sigh TOH sis)
protozoa (pro toe ZOE ah)
ribonucleic acid (RIE bow new KLEE ic)
ribosomes (RIE boh soamz)
vesicle (VESS ih kle)
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Overview of Cells
• Cells are the fundamental unit of living
things.
• Cells of a similar type form tissues that
function to work together in an organ,
while organs perform special functions to
create a system.
• Systems work together to form a
functioning human body.
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Overview of Cells
• Although cells have common components,
they come in a variety of shapes and sizes
to match their function.
• Some types of body cells include nerve
cells, blood cells, and muscle cells.
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Figure 4-1 Various types of cells within the human body.
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Cell Structure
• There are certain common traits that
almost all cells share
– Nucleus
– Organelles
– Cytoplasm
– Cell membrane
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Figure 4-2 Cellular components.
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Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane is the defined
boundary that possesses a definite shape
and actually holds the cell contents
together, acting as a protective covering.
• A cell membrane allows material into and
out of the cell.
• It is 3/10,000,000 of an inch thick.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable
because they choose what gets into or out
of the cell.
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Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane is made of phospholipid
bilayer
– Prevents polar (hydrophilic) molecules from
passing through membrane
– Hydrophobic molecules pass through easily
• Proteins in cell membrane
– Identification markers that identify it as
coming from a certain person
– Channels to allow substances into cell
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Figure 4-3 The cell membrane.
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Transport Methods
• Moving things in and out of the cell can be
done in two broad ways
– Passive transport – requires no extra form of
energy to complete
– Active transport – requires some addition of
energy to make it happen
• Passive transport can be divided into four
types: diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and
facilitated diffusion.
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Diffusion
• Diffusion is the most common form of
passive transport in which a substance of
higher concentration travels to an area of
lesser concentration.
• Examples would be: adding a packet of
powdered drink mix to a pitcher of water,
or the smell of a classmate’s perfume
filling a room.
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Diffusion
• Diffusion is necessary to move oxygen
from the lungs to the blood stream, or
carbon dioxide from the blood stream to
the lungs.
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Figure 4-4 Two examples of diffusion.
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Osmosis
• Osmosis is another form of diffusion in
which water travels through a selectively
permeable when a concentration gradient
is present.
• Water will tend to travel across a
membrane from an area of low solute
concentration to an area of high solute
concentration until solute concentrations
are equal.
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Osmosis
• The ability of a substance to pull water
toward an area of higher concentration is
called osmotic pressure.
• The greater the concentration gradient, the
greater the osmotic pressure.
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Figure 4-5 Osmosis: Water moves from an area of low solute concentration to an area of
higher solute concentration.
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Filtration
• In filtration, pressure is applied to force
water and its dissolved materials across a
membrane.
• Similar to a crush of people pushing
through a turnstile during rush hour
• Only solutes that can fit through channels
and other openings in the membrane will
filter across it.
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Figure 4-6 The process of filtration in the kidneys, where smaller solutes, such as the
electrolytes sodium and potassium, pass through the membrane, whereas the larger blood
proteins and cells normally do not.
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion (carrier mediated
passive transport) is a variation of diffusion
in which a carrier molecule helps a
substance move across the membrane.
• Protein carrier moves molecule across
membrane down its concentration
gradient.
• Glucose is a good example.
• Characteristics include specificity,
saturation, inhibition and competition.
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Figure 4-7 Facilitated diffusion.
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Figure 4-7 (continued) Facilitated diffusion.
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Three Types of Active Transport
• Active transport can be broken down
further to three different types
– Active transport pumps
– Endocytosis
– Exocytosis
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Active Transport Pumps
• Active transport pumps (carrier mediated
active transport) require the addition of
energy in the form of ATP to move a
substance.
• Energy is needed because the cell is
trying to move a substance into an area
that already has a high concentration of
the substance.
• A protein carrier is used to move the
substance up the concentration gradient.
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Endocytosis
• Endocytosis is used by cells for the intake of
liquid and food when the substance is too large
to diffuse across the membrane.
• The substance is surrounded by a small portion
of the cell membrane, forming a chamber or
vesicle which then separates from the rest of the
membrane and moves into the cell.
– Phagocytosis is the name for this process if it is a
solid particle being transported.
– Pinocytosis is the name for the process if it is water
being transported.
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Exocytosis
• Exocytosis is the transport of things out of
the cell.
• Some cells produce a substance needed
outside the cell. Once the substance is
made, it is surrounded by a membrane,
forming a vesicle, and moves to the cell
membrane. This vesicle becomes a part of
the cell membrane and expels its load out
of the cell.
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Figure 4-8 Types of active transport in and out of cells.
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Figure 4-8 (continued) Types of active transport in and out of cells.
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Table 4-1 Methods of Cellular Transportation.
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Table 4-1 (continued) Methods of Cellular Transportation.
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Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance
composed of water, nutrients, and
electrolytes, which looks a lot like the
white of a raw egg.
• Cells require cytoplasm for their internal
environment in order for the parts of the
cell, known as organelles, to thrive and
function.
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Cellular Organelles
• Each cell has components that perform
specific duties, much like the organs of our
body.
• Due to their size, these components are
called organelles, which literally means
“small organs.”
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Nucleus
• The nucleus is the “brains of the cell.”
• The nucleus dictates the activities of the
other organelles in the cell.
• The nucleus has a double walled nuclear
membrane with large pores allowing
certain materials to pass in and out, while
preventing other materials from entering.
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Chromatin
• Chromatin is the material found in the
nucleus that contains DNA.
• DNA contains the blueprints, or
specifications, for the creation of new
cells.
• Chromatin will eventually form
chromosomes, which carry genes.
• Genes determine our inherited
characteristics.
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Nucleolus
• A spherical body made up of dense fibers
is found within the cell nucleus.
• It is called the nucleolus.
• Its major function is to synthesize the
ribonucleic acid (RNA) that forms
ribosomes.
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Figure 4-9 The cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus.
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Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are organelles found on the
endoplasmic reticulum or found floating
around in the cytoplasm.
• Ribosomes are made of RNA (ribonucleic
acid) and assist in the production of enzymes
and other protein substances that are needed
for cell repair and reproduction.
• Ribosomes can be considered the
“remodeler” of the cell, taking an existing
structure and maintaining and repairing it.
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Centrosomes
• The centrosomes act as a building
contractor, building new structures as the
need arises.
• Centrosomes are specialized regions that
contain centrioles that are involved in the
division of the cell.
• Centrioles are tubular shaped and usually
found in pairs.
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Mitochondria
• The mitochondria, tiny bean-shaped
organelles, act as the power plant to
provide up to 95% of our bodies’ energy
needs for cellular repair, movement, and
reproduction.
• If a cell needs more power it increases the
number of mitochondria in the cell.
• The energy produced is in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) formed by
cellular respiration.
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Figure 4-10 The cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, centrioles,
and mitochondria.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of
channels set up in the cytoplasm that are formed
from folded membranes.
• The endoplasmic reticulum has two distinct
forms
– One has a sandpaper-like surface, with ribosomes on
it, called the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and is
responsible for synthesis of protein.
– The second form has no ribosomes and appears
smooth. It is called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and synthesizes lipids.
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Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi Apparatus looks like a bunch of
flattened membranous sacs.
• Once the Golgi Apparatus receives protein from
the endoplasmic reticulum, it further processes
and stores it.
• The Golgi Apparatus takes the processed
protein to the cell membrane where it is
released.
• Salivary glands and pancreatic glands have
higher numbers of Golgi Apparati because they
have a higher level of secretion or storage.
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Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are vesicles containing
powerful hydrolytic enzymes that take care
of cleaning up intracellular debris and
other waste.
• Lysosomes also aid in keeping us healthy;
destroying unwanted bacteria by
participating in the process of
phagocytosis.
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Figure 4-11 The cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, centrioles,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.
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Other Interesting Parts
• The cytoskeleton is a network of
microtubules and interconnected filaments
that provides shape to the cell and allow
the cell and its contents to be mobile.
• Flagella are whip-shaped tails that move
some cells, like sperm, to other locations.
• Cilia are short, microscopic, hair-like
projections located on the outer surface of
some cells. They move particles using a
wavelike motion.
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Click here to view a video on the topic of cell structure.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• Cellular respiration is a very important
process. Without it, your cells would
quickly die. We all know that we need to
eat to obtain energy, but how does energy
get from food to cells? In simple terms, the
body takes in food and breaks it down
(digestion). During this process, energy is
released from the food.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• Now, the problem is that cells can’t use
this energy directly. Only food converted to
glucose (simple sugar) can be used to
make energy.
• Glucose can be used by your cells during
a series of chemical reactions called
cellular respiration.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• During cellular respiration, glucose is combined
with oxygen and is transformed in your
mitochondria into the high-energy molecule
called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During
cellular respiration, glucose is “burned” in the
presence of oxygen, making water, carbon
dioxide, and lots of energy. The equation
• Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water +
energy
– C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (lots)
– Can be used to represent cellular respiration.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• Once the glucose is used up and energy is
made, carbon dioxide and water are made
as waste products. To make energy for
your cells, you must have glucose (from
food) and abundant oxygen. You make
energy and you must be able to get rid of
the waste carbon dioxide. Now you know
why you breathe! You need to bring in
oxygen to make energy, and you to need
to exhale to get rid of the waste product
carbon dioxide.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• The point of cellular respiration is to make
energy in the form of ATP.
• ATP is made up of a base, a sugar, and
three (hence, triphosphate) phosphate
groups.
• The phosphate groups are held together
by high-energy bonds. When a bond is
broken, a high level of energy is released.
Energy in this form can be used by the
cells.
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Cell Energy and ATP
• When a bond is used, ATP becomes ADP
(adenosine diphosphate), which has only
two phosphate groups. ADP now is able to
pick up another phosphate and form a
high-energy bond so energy is stored and
the process can begin again!
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Cellular Reproduction
• Mitosis (asexual reproduction) helps to
replace body cells to repair and
regenerate damaged tissue (e.g., a cut on
your finger).
• Mitosis is also used for body growth such
as lengthening bones and adding muscle
mass (more cells are needed).
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Meiosis
• Meiosis is involved in sexual reproduction
in which two different cells unite to form a
new cell.
• Remember that Meiosis produces
gametes (sexual cells) while Mitosis (I
reproduce myself) is asexual and
reproduces exact copies of itself.
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The Cell Cycle
• The two major phases of a cell’s life are
known as the cell cycle.
• Most of the time a cell is in the phase
called interphase where it is NOT dividing
and is performing its normal function.
• When the cell needs to reproduce itself, it
enters the mitotic phase.
• The mitotic phase is divided into two major
portions called mitosis and cytokinesis.
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The Cell Cycle
• Mitosis is the sorting and division of
genetic material and has four phases
(prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase).
– Our cells are eukaryotic cells with nucleus,
organelles and multiple chromosomes so
division is complicated.
• Cytokinesis is the division of the
cytoplasm.
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Figure 4-12 Flowchart of the cell cycle.
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Phases of Mitosis
• Prophase (pro = before) – the nucleus
disappears, the chromosomes become visible, a
set of chromosomal anchor lines or guide wires,
the spindle, forms.
• Metaphase (meta = between) – the
chromosomes line up in the center of the cells.
• Anaphase (an = without) – the chromosomes
split and the spindles pull them apart.
• Telophase (telo = the end) – the chromosomes
go to the far ends of the cell, the spindle
disappears and the nuclei reappear.
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Cytokinesis
• During, or directly after, telophase,
cytokinesis happens and the cell divides in
half. The original cell was the mother cell
that has now formed into two new identical
daughter cells. Thus mitosis (asexual
reproduction), results in two new daughter
cells identical to the original mother cell.
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Figure 4-13 Phases of mitosis.
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Figure 4-13 (continued) Phases of mitosis.
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Clinical Application: Mitosis Run
Amok – Cancer Cells
• When things are right, cells grow in an
orderly fashion. Sometimes conditions are
altered that trigger changes in the way cells
grow. This wild, uncontrolled growth can lead
to too many cells being produced with a
lump, or tumor, being created.
• Tumors can generally be either benign (slow
growing, non-life threatening) or malignant
(rapid growing, life threatening, likely to
spread to other tissues or metastasize).
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Microorganisms
• There are four primary microorganisms to
be discussed, including
– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Fungi
– Protozoa
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Bacteria
• Prokaryotic cells – no nucleus, few
organelles
• Bacteria can be harmful, as in the case of
pathogens, or they can be harmless and
essential for life.
• Harmless bacteria are sometimes called
normal flora.
– Certain bacteria in the intestines help to
digest food and some help to synthesize
vitamin K, which we need for blood clotting.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Figure 4-14 Types of bacteria.
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Viruses
• Viruses are infectious particles that have a
core containing genetic material that is
surrounded by a protective protein coat called
a capsid.
• Viruses cannot grow, eat, or reproduce by
themselves. They must enter another cell and
use that cell for energy to grow and
reproduce.
• Viruses do not respond to antibiotics. They
can stay dormant in the body and become
active later in life.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Figure 4-15 A virus.
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Fungi
• Fungi, the plural form of fungus, can be a
one-celled or multi-celled organism. They are
plant-like organisms with tiny filaments, called
mycelia, that travel out from the cell to find
and then absorb nutrients.
• Good fungi, like edible mushrooms, exist.
• Fungi spread through the release of spores.
• Examples of fungal infections include
athlete’s foot, thrush, or candidiasis.
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Figure 4-16 Types of fungi and a fungal infection of the tongue. (Photo Source: Courtesy of
Jason L. Smith, MD.)
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Figure 4-16 (continued) Types of fungi and a fungal infection of the tongue.
(Photo Source: Courtesy of Jason L. Smith, MD.)
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Figure 4-16 (continued) Types of fungi and a fungal infection of the tongue. (Photo Source:
Courtesy of Jason L. Smith, MD.)
Essentials of A&P for Emergency Care
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Protozoa
• Protozoa are one-celled, animal-like
organisms that can be found in water and
soil.
• Diseases caused by these
microorganisms can result from
swallowing them or from being bitten by
insects that carry them in their bodies.
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Figure 4-17 Protozoa.
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FROM THE STREETS:
Prophylactic Antibiotics?
• Taking antibiotics before exposure will not
afford any significant protection.
• The best prevention of disease
transmission is the use of Standard
Precautions and routine vaccinations for
illnesses encountered in the course of
EMS work.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• All living organisms are made of one or
more cells. Cells are the fundamental units
of living organisms. Even though cells are
the fundamental units, cells are composed
of a variety of parts necessary for proper
cellular function. Parts are called
organelles.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• Substances can cross the cell membrane
via passive or active transport. Passive
transport can occur through diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, osmosis, or filtration.
Active transport can occur through active
transport pumps, endocytosis, or
exocytosis.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• For cells to carry out metabolism, they must
have energy in the form of ATP. ATP is made
via a complex series of reactions called cellular
respiration.
• Bacteria are simple one-celled organisms
without a nucleus or many organelles. A virus is
not a one-celled organism; it needs another cell
to replicate. Fungi can be single-celled or multicelled organisms and can cause infections in the
body. Protozoa are one-celled and can cause
disease through ingestion or insect bites.
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Snapshots from the Journey
• Cells and tissues grow, are replaced, and are
repaired by asexual reproduction. Cells make
identical copies of themselves. This takes place all
over your body whenever tissues grow or are
repaired. Asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells
is accomplished by a relatively complex process
called mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis, the division
of the genetic material, takes place in four phases;
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and
organelles. Mitosis produces two daughter cells,
identical to each other.
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Case Study
• Given the following mini-scenarios, identify what
type microorganism may be a causative agent:
– Two young boys complain of stomach aches and
severe diarrhea after drinking pool water.
– Julia is a 13-year-old with a compromised immune
system due to an inherited disease. Two days after
returning home from a school field trip, Julia
complains of shortness of breath and is diagnosed
with a respiratory infection.
– Bob has a stubborn cold for three days and is given
an antibacterial agent. However, he doesn’t respond
to the treatment and the cold persists.
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FROM THE STREETS
You are called to a local nursing home for a
72 year-old female who is short of breath.
The patient also complains of weakness and
frequent cough. Staff report that she has an
oral temperature of 102ºF and several of the
other residents have “the flu”. You also note
that she has a urinary Foley bag that is very
cloudy.
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From the Streets Questions
•
•
•
•
•
What is the causative agent of “the flu”?
What is “the flu”?
Why is the patient short of breath?
What does her cloudy Foley bag indicate?
How would you protect yourself from “the flu”
while caring for the patient?
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From the Streets Questions
• What is the causative agent of “the flu”? Virus
• What is “the flu”? Influenza
• Why is the patient short of breath? Influenza
is a communicable disease that attacks the
respiratory system
• What does her cloudy Foley bag indicate? A
bacterial infection
• How would you protect yourself from “the flu”
while caring for the patient? Wear a mask
because influenza is spread by airborne
droplets
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End of Chapter
Review Questions
1. The cell membrane can best be
described as:
a. Permeable to all materials
b. Non-permeable
c. Rigid
d. Selectively permeable
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Review Questions
2. All of the following are passive forms of
diffusion EXCEPT:
a. Facilitated diffusion
b. Exocytosis
c. Osmosis
d. Filtration
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Review Questions
3. With a greater concentration of a solute,
what will happen to osmotic pressure?
a. It will become less
b. It will become greater
c. It will remain the same
d. There is no relation between osmotic
pressure and the concentration of solute.
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Review Questions
4. Which molecule is broken down during
cellular respiration?
a. Oxygen
b. Water
c. Carbon dioxide
d. Glucose
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Review Questions
5. Which microorganism can cause
disease?
a. Bacteria
b. Fungi
c. Virus
d. All of the above
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Review Questions
a. Makes ATP
b. Processing, packaging, and
___Cell membrane
shipping of materials
___Golgi Apparatus c. Separates cell from
environment
___Mitochondria
d. Contains genetic material
___Cytoplasm
e. The internal environment
___Lysosome
f. Contain hydrolytic enzymes
___Nucleus
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Review Questions
1. List and describe the four methods of
passive transport.
2. Why do viruses need cells?
3. How does passive transport differ from
active transport?
4. Explain the molecules used and
produced during cellular respiration.
5. List and describe the types of
microorganisms.
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