Transcript Slide 1

ENGLISH HISTORICAL
GRAMMAR
NOUNS
present-day English:
3 (natural) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter (inanimate)
2 numbers: singular, plural
2 cases: common case, possessive case
most nouns 2 (spoken) or 4 (written) forms:
[boɪ]
boy
boys
[boɪz]
boy’s
boys’
All creatures, heavens and angels, the sun and the moon, the stars and the
earth, animals and birds, the sea and all fish, God created and made in six
days.
Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan,
steorran and eorþan, ny̅tenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God
gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.
OE NOUNS
3 (grammatical) genders: masculine, feminine, neuter
2 numbers: singular, plural
4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative
8 different forms (stem + case/number ending)
Different inflectional patterns > different DECLENSIONS
6 major, several minor declensions:
4 vocalic (strong) declensions – stem ends in a vowel (a, ō, u, i)
1 consonantal (weak) declension – stem ends in a consonant (n)
1 root declension – stem equals the root
a-declension:
n-declension
root declension
stān
stānes
stāne
stān
stānas
stāna
stānum
stānas
nama
naman
naman
naman
naman
namena
namum
naman
mann
mannes
menn
mann
word
wordes
worde
word
word
worda
wordum
word
sunne
sunnan
sunnan
sunnan
sunnan
sunnena
sunnum
sunnan
menn
manna
mannum
menn
THE FINAL FRICATIVE VOICING
wolf-wolves, thief-thieves, bath-baths, mouth-mouths, house-houses,
loaf-loaves, half-halves, life-lives
BUT: dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves, scarfs/scarves…
AND: beliefs, chiefs, roofs…
OE N/A sg. wulf, OE N/A pl. wulfas
OE wulfas > ME wulves > NE [wʊlvz] wolves
THE ZERO PLURAL
neuter nouns in the a-declension, monosyllabic, long syllable
OE N/A sg. word, N/A pl. word
OE N/A sg. hūs, N/A pl. hūs
but: OE sg. scip, pl. scipu
nȳten, pl. nȳtenu
ME. word + es
hūs + es
…..
But: sheep < OE scēap
deer < OE dēor….
so also: fish, trout, quail…
THE MUTATION PLURAL
mouse-mice, louse-lice, man-men,
tooth-teeth, goose-geese, woman-women
PALATAL MUTATION/ i-MUTATION
Germ. *mūs-, pl. *mūs-izOE N/A sg. mūs, N/A pl. mȳs
ME mūs, pl. mīs
NE [maʊs] mouse, [maɪs] mice
A sound law operating in North Germanic and West
Germanic dialects:
pre-OE*a > OE æ, e/_ [+nasal]
pre-OE *o > OE e
pre-OE *u > OE y
pre-OE *eo, *ea > OE ie
under the influence of *i in the next syllable
The same rules apply to long accented vowels and
diphthongs
OE sg. wīf-mann,
pl. wīf-menn
ME sg. wimman,
pl. wimmen
sg.
wumman,
pl. wummen
NE sg. [‘wʊmən] woman, pl. [‘wɪmɪn] women
THE n-PLURAL
ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren…
OE n-declension (masculine)
oxa
oxan
oxan
oxena
oxan
oxum
oxan
oxan
OE oxan > ME oxen > NE [ɒksn] oxen
OE cild, N/A pl. cildru
OE cildru > ME childre, childer + en > NE [ʧɪldrən] children
OE brōþor, pl. brōþor
ME brōther, pl. brōther, brōther+es, brēther+en
NE [brʌðəz], [breðrən] brothers, brethren
FOREIGN PLURAL MARKERS
alumnus – alumni
bacillus – bacilli
datum – data
stratum – strata
genus – genera
analysis – analyses
criterion – criteria
phenomenon – phenomena…
Ealle gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan, steorran
and eorþan, nȳtenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas, God gescēop and
geworhte on six dagum.
DO
S
P
A
[ealla gesceafta, heofonas and englas, sunnan and mōnan,
eorþan and steorran, nȳtenu and fugelas, sǣ and ealle fiscas,]
[God]
[gescēop and geworhte]
[on six dagum].
ealle > ME all(e) > NE all
gesceafta – A. pl. fem., N. sg. gesceaft
heofonas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. heofon
englas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. engel
sunnan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. sunne
mōnan – A. sg. masc., N. sg. mōna
eorþan – A. sg. fem., N. sg. eorþe
steorran – A. pl. masc. N. sg. steorra
nȳtenu - A. pl. neut. N. sg. nȳten
fugelas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fugel
sǣ - A. sg. neut.
fiscas – A. pl. masc., N. sg. fisc
God – N. sg. masc.
gescēop – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: (ge)sceapan
geworhte – 3rd p. sg. preterite, indicative; infinitive: wyrcan
dagum – D. pl. masc., N. sg. dæg
THE CASE
OE four cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative
a-declension:
n-declension
mutation plurals
stān
stānes
stāne
stān
nama
naman
naman
naman
mann
mannes
menn
mann
stānas
stāna
stānum
stānas
naman
namena
namum
naman
menn
manna
mannum
menn
The only surviving ending : -es (Genitive singular, a-declension
OE –es > ME – [əz] > NE [z] Mary’s
> NE [s] Mat’s
> NE [ız] Bruce’s
From late OE – spreading to all masculine, all neuter, all feminine and
plural nouns
Apostrophe: since 1650 in singular, since 1780 in plural
In ME case endings replaced with prepostional endings
OE ….hit liīode Herode and eallum þe him mid ston…
ME … and (it) pleside to Eroude and also to men restynge…
NE … and pleased Herod and them that sat with him
THE FUNCTION OF SAXON GENITIVE
OE Hwæs bidde ic? …. Iohannes heofod þæs fulluhteres…
verbs and adjectives governed different cases
we synt Abrahames cynnes
partitive meaning
Herodiascan dohtor
possessive meaning
In NE – mostly restricted to possessive function and human beings
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
NE:
I
me
you
you
we
us
you
you
he
him
she
her
it
it
they
them
-unlike nouns, case distinction
-2nd person singular = 2nd person plural
-common case = objective case
-gender distinction in 3rd person singular only
-Scandinavian pronouns in 3rd person plural
OE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
1st
2nd
3rd
singular:
ic
mīn
mē
mē
þū
þīn
þē
þē
hē
his
him
hine
hēo
hiere
hiere
hēo
ʒē
ēower
ēow
ēow
hīe
hiera
hem, heom, him
hīe
plural:
wē
ūre
ūs
ūs
hit
his
him
hit
1st singular, 3rd singular masculine, 1st plural:
NE common case < OE nominative case
NE objective case < OE dative
OE ic > ME i(c, ī > NE [aı] I
OE mē > ME mē > NE [mi:] me
ic
mīn
mē
mē
þū
þīn
þē
þē
hē
his
him
hine
wē
ūre
ūs
ūs
ʒē
ēower
ēow
ēow
hīe
hiera
hem, heom, him
hīe
OE hē > ME hē > NE [hi:] he
OE him > ME him > NE [hım] him
OE wē > ME wē > NE [wi:] we
OE ūs > ME ūs, us > NE [Λs] us
hēo
hiere
hiere
hēo
hit
his
him
hit
3rd person singular neuter:
OE common case = OE accusative case = NE common, objective case
OE hit > ME hit > NE [ɪt] it
3rd person singular feminine:
OE nominative lost
NE common case < ?
OE dative case > NE objective case
OE hēo > ME hē, hjē, hjō
ME sjē, shē > NE [∫i:] she
OE hiere > ME her(e > NE [hз:] her
ic
mīn
mē
mē
þū
þīn
þē
þē
hē
his
him
hine
hēo
hiere
hiere
hēo
wē
ūre
ūs
ūs
ʒē
ēower
ēow
ēow
hīe
hiera
hem, heom, him
hīe
hit
his
him
hit
þū
þīn
þē
þē
ʒē
ēower
ēow
ēow
2nd person singular, plural
OE nominative singular > NE common case singular (obsolete)
OE dative singuar > NE objective case singular (obsolete)
OE þū > ME thou > NE [ðau] thou
OE þē > ME thee > NE [ði:] thee
OE nominative plural > NE common case plural (obsolete)
OE dative plural > NE common/objective case singular/plural
OE ʒē > ME yẹ̄ > NE [ji:] ye
OE ēow > ME you > NE [ju:] you
plural → singular (13th - 18th century)
objective case → common case (14th – 17th century)
3rd person plural
OE nominative case > lost
OE objective case > lost?
OE hīe > ME hẹ̄;
thei (12th c.) > NE [ðeɪ] they
OE hem, heom > ME hem, NE [əm] ‘em,
them (14th c.) > [ðem] them
And specially from every shires ende
of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende
the holy blisful martyr for to seke
that hem hath holpen whan that they were seke…
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
OE genitives of personal pronouns also used as possessives.
Possessives were declined, they displayed gender and number
agreement
… ūrne gedæghwāmlican hlāf syle ūs tðdæg
and forgyf ūs ūre gyltas
swā swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum…
1st
2nd
3rd
singular
ic
mīn
mē
mē
þū
þīn
þē
þē
hē
his
him
hine
hēo
hiere
hiere
hēo
ʒē
ēower
ēow
ēow
hīe
hiera
hem, heom, him
hīe
hit
his
him
hit
plural:
wē
ūre
ūs
ūs
NE
my, mine
your, yours
his
her, hers
its
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
1st person singular:
OE mīn > ME ‘mīn > NE [‘maın] mine (disjunctive)
ME ˚mi, mī > NE [mɪ], [maɪ] my (conjunctive)
2nd person singular (obsolete)
OE þīn > ME ‘thīn > NE [‘ðaɪn] thine (disjunctive)
ME ̊thi(n, thī > NE [ðaɪ] thy (conjunctive)
2nd person plural
OE N. sg. masc. ēower > ME your > NE [jɔə], [jɔ:] your
3rd person plural
OE N. sg. masc. hiera > ME her(e
ME their > NE [ðɛə] their
CONJUCTIVE (ATTRIBUTIVE) AND DISJUNCTIVE (PREDICATIVE)
POSSESSIVES
mine, thine – accent related
hers, ours, yours, theirs
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
In OE regular personal pronouns were used in reflexive position
Bycgaþ eow ele ….
Hē hine restan wolde…
Occasionally, reinforced with the adjective self:
Romane selfe sædon ……
Ic swerige ðurh me selfne
The “old system” of reflexive pronouns:
me self
thee self
him self
her self
it self
us self
you self
them self
self adjective > self noun
⇒ personal pronouns > possessive pronouns
The “new system” of reflexive pronouns:
my self
thy self
his self
her self
it(s) self
our self
your self
their self
self pluralized,
combination of the old system (3rd person) and of the new system
(1st and 2nd persons):
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Modern English usage:
cf. :
She dressed and left for work.
The little girl dressed herself and came down the stairs.
DEMONSTRATIVES
Old English demonstratives:
‘this’
N. sg. masc. þes
N. sg. fem. þēos
N. sg. neut. þis
N. pl. þās
‘that’
N. sg. masc. se, sē
N. sg. fem. sēo
N. sg. neut. þæt
N. pl. þā
ARTICLES
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
In OE – unaccented ‘that’ demonstratives
occasionally used as the definite article
masc. sg.
fem. sg.
neut. sg.
pl.
N. se
G. þes
D. þǣm
A. þone
L. þē
I. þy̅
sēo
þǣre
þǣre
þā
þæt
þes
þǣm
þæt
þā
þāra
þǣm
þā
ME the > NE [ðǝ] the
ME ‘the > thẹ̄ > NE [‘ði:] the
ME [+vowel, -long] ￫ [+long] / - V ⇒ thẹ̄ apple > NE [ði:] apple
the + comparative/superlative of adverbs:
The sooner the better.
He runs (the) fastest
..forþām wæs sanctus Paulus þȳ strangra on gōdum weorcum…
.. þæt hēr þȳ māra wīsdom on lande wǣre…þȳ wē mā geþēoda
cūþon….
= ‘even more’
OE þȳ, þē > ME the > NE the [ðə]
The indefinite article
OE:
þæt dyde unhold mann… ‘an enemy did that’
he bestēalcode on land swā swā wulf…’he stole into the land like a wolf’
occasionally:
.. ān mann wæs eardiende on Israhēla þēode… ‘a man lived in Israel’
... nim sume tigelan… ‘take a tablet’
OE ān > ME ǭn, wǭn, wọ̄n > NE wūn, wun > [‘wʌn] one
OE °ān > ME an, a(n) > NE [ən], [ə]
ME ‘an > NE [‘æn], [‘eɪ] a, an = RESTRESSED FORMS
ADJECTIVES
Old English adjectives displayed number, gender and case agreement with the
nouns which they modified.
strong and weak declension
…ān gōd mann wæs eardiende…. Se gōda mann wæs hālig…
The choice of the declension depended on the specific or non-specific reference
of the modified noun
STRONG ENDINGS = NON-SPECIFIC (INDEFINITE) REFERENCE
WEAK ENDINGS = SPECIFIC (DEFINITE) REFERENCE
Strong declension:
singular
masc.
fem.
neut.
plural
all
cwic
cwices
cwicum
cwicne
cwice
cwicu
cwicre
cwicre
cwice
(cwicre)
cwic
cwices
cwicum
cwic
cwice
cwicra
cwicum
cwice
cwice
cwican
cwican
cwice
cwice
cwican
cwican
cwican
cwican
cwicra
cwicum
cwican
Weak declension
cwica
cwican
cwican
cwican
MIDDLE ENGLISH: The ending –e was the only ending retained:
strong singular:
(an) good man
strong plural:
(many) goode men
weak singular:
(the) goode man
weak plural:
the goode men
The final –e ceased to be pronounced in the 14th century.
Chaucer (Canterbury Tales):
Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote
the drought of March hath perced to the roote…
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
inspired hath in every holt and heeth
the tendre croppes…
… and smale foules maken melodye
that sleepen al the nyght with open ie….
In Modern English adjectives are invariable, except in the system of
comparison.
COMPARISON: inflectional, periphrastic, irregular
Inlectional comparison
comparative degree:
OE –ra (masc.), -re (fem.), -re (neut.), -ran (pl.) weak declension (endings)
ME –r[ə] > NE [ə] –er
OE heardra (N.sg.masc.) > ME hardr(e, harder > NE harder [‘hɑ:də]
superlative degree: strong or weak declension
OE –ost, -est > ME –[ə]st > NE [ɪst] -est
OE heardost > ME hardest > NE [‘hɑ:dɪst] hardest
PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON
“competes” with inflectional comparison since ME:
comparative/superlative of ‘much’ + positive degree
The origin of more, most:
OE micel ‘great’; comp. māra, sup. mǣst
OE micle ‘greatly’, comp. mā, sup. mǣst
OE mā > ME mǭ, mǭre > NE [mɔ:] more
OE mǣst > ME mę̄st; mǭst > NE [‘məʊst] most
Shakespeare:
….to some more fitter place…
… I am more better than Prospero…
…. in the calmest and most stillest of the night…
… most unkindest cut of all…
present-day English:
inflectional comparison: all monosyllabic, disyllabic adjectives in
-er, -le, -ow, -y
periphrastic comparison: disyllabic adjectives in –ed, -ish, -ful,
-ing, -ive, -st, all adjectives longer than two syllables
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
1.good – better – the best
gōd
bet(e)ra
be(t)st
yfel
wiersa
wierst
micel
māra
mǣst
lȳtel
lǣssa
lǣst
b) old – older/elder - the oldest/eldest
OE eald , ald (Anglian) >
ME ǭld > NE [əʊld] old
OE ieldra, eldra
ME eldr(e
>
> NE [eldə] elder
>
OE ieldest, eldest
> ME eldest
NE [əʊldə] older (17th c.)
> NE [eldɪst] eldest
> NE [əʊldɪst] oldest (17th c.)
OE læt, latOE lætra
> ME lāt
NE [leɪt] late
> ME latr(e > NE [lætə] latter
ME lātr(e
OE * lætst
>
>
ME last
> NE [leɪtə] later
>
NE [lɑ:st] last
ME lātest > NE [leɪtɪst] latest
OE nēah > ME neigh > NE [naɪ] nigh
OE nēarra > ME nę̄rre > NE [nɪə] near
OE nēahst > ME nehst > NE [nekst] next
OE forþ (adverb)
OE furþra > ME furthr(e
ME furthest
> NE [fɜ:ðə] further
> NE [fɜ:ðɪst] furthest
OE feorr (adverb)
OE fierra
>
OE fierrest >
ME ferre, farre > NE [fɑ:ðə] farther
Me ferrest, farrest > NE [fɑ:ðɪst] farthest
ADVERBS
according to form: SIMPLE, DERIVED, PERIPHRASTIC
SIMPLE: now, then, here, there, well, hard, fast…..
origin:
a)OE simple adverbs: nū, hēr, þǣr, wel….
b)OE derived adverbs: hearde, fæste, wīde…
OE hearde > ME harde > NE [hɑ:d] hard
DERIVED ADVERBS: widely, strongly, hardly, eastward(s), clockwise…
origin:
a)OE adjective + suffix –līce
OE noun sōþ + līc (adjectival suffix) + e (adverbial suffix) > sōþ-līce
OE –līce > ME li(ch(e > NE -[lɪ] –ly
ME –lich(e, -ly competes with –(e)
Shakespeare:
thou didst it excellent
she will speak most bitterly and strange
since 18th c. simple adverbs - exceptions
double adverbial forms:
Peter works hard.
Peter hardly (ever) works.
I hate arriving late.
I haven’t been to the theatre lately
He can jump very high.
He is highly spoken of.
Come close.
They are closely related.
Take it easy.
This can be arranged easily.
b) OE nouns/adverb + weard
OE weard ‘in direction of’ > ME ward > NE -ward(s)
c) OE nound + wīs –e ‘in the manner
OE –wīse > ME – wīs(e > NE –[waɪz]
PERIPHRASTIC ADVERBIALS: in a (adjective) manner/ way
cf overboard, uphill, downside, upstream….
NUMERALS
words representing numbers
cardinal – quantity: one, two, three
ordinal – sequential order: first, second, third
ranking – order of relevance: primary, secondary, tertiary
partitititve – division into fraction: whole, half, third
composite – composition: unary, binary, ternary
multiplicative – repetition: once, twice, thrice
reproductive – replication: single, double, triple
collective – sets: pair, triad, dozen
distributive – alternating patterns: every other, every third…(singuli, bini, terni…)
…
OE cardinal
OE ordinal
1 ān
2 twā, twegen
3 þrēo, þrīe
4 fēower
5 fīf
6 siex
7 seofon
8 eahta
9 nigon
10 tīen
forma
ōþer
þirda, þridda
fēorþa
fīfta
siexta
seofoþa
eahtoþa
nigoþa
tēoþa
22 twegen and twentig
1 – 3 : declined, gender distinction
4 - 19 : not declined, but the ending –e when used alone
fīf menn
-
fīfe
Ordinal numerals: cardinal + oþa
IE * -to- > Germ. * -þa- > OE – (o) þa > ME –th(e > NE – [θ]
after voiceless fricatives – dissimilation of [θ] to [t] : fīfta
Ealla gesceafta […..] God gescēop and geworhte on six dagum.
And an þǣm seofoþan dæʒe hē ʒeendode his weorc and geswāc
þā and hīe wǣron swīþe gōde. (Ælfric)
Henry the Fift, Twelft Night (Shakespeare)
Irregular ordinal numerals
one : (the) first
OE ān > ME ǭn, w ǭn, wōn > NE wūn, wun, [wʌn] one
OE forma, foremest, ǣrest, fyrsta
OE fyrsta > ME first(e > NE [fɜ:st] first
two : (the) second
OE twā (fem., neut.) > ME twǭ > twọ̄ > NE [tu:] two
OE twegen (masc.) > ME tweien > NE [tweɪn] twain
OE ōþer > ME ọ̄ther > NE ūther, uther > [ʌðə] other
ME secounde > NE [‘sekənd] second
three :
(the )third
OE þrēo (fem., neut.) > ME thrē > NE [θri:] three
OE þrīe > ME thrẹ̄ > NE [θri:] three
OE þridda, þirda > ME third(e > NE [θɜ:d] third
five
: (the ) fifth
OE fīfe
>
ME fīv(e
> NE [faɪv] five
OE fīfta > ME fift(e > NE fift, fifth [fɪfθ]
VERBS
verbal categories: person, tense, mood, (voice?)
PERSON - Who is the doer of the action? I, you or somebody else
AGENT > SUBJECT > NOUN PHRASE and/or personal ending
OE present tense (indicative)
singular
plural
wrīt-e
wrīt-est
wrīt-eþ
wrīt-aþ
1st person – loss of the ending –e in ME
OE (ic) wrīte > ME wrīt(e > NE [raɪt] write
2nd person – loss of the 2nd person singular
loss of singular reference in the 2nd person
3rd person singular:
OE –(e)þ, -t (in contracted forms) remains in ME, but gradually
replaced with –es from the north
OE (hē) wrīteþ, wrītt > ME wrīteth, writt, wrītes
OE –es > ME [ə]s, [ə][z] > NE
[z]
[s]
[ɪz]
ME (hẹ̄) wrītes > NE [‘raɪts] writes
plural:
OE –aþ preserved as ME –eth, but soon replaced with –en
OE (hīe) wrītaþ > ME wrīteth, wrīt(e(n > NE [‘raɪt] write
The ending –es the only personal ending preserved, but even this one
restricted to the present tense and to the indicative mood.
Why not in the past tense?
Why not in the subjunctive and the imperative?
Why not in modal verbs?
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE
OE present subjunctive singular : wrīte
OE present subjuctive plural:
wrīten
OE preterite subjunctive singular: write
OE preterite subjunctive plural:
writen
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE IMPERATIVE
OE imperative singular:
OE imperative plural:
Wrīt! Lufe!
Wrītaþ! Lufaþ!
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN MODAL VERBS
OE cunnan ‘know’
present: 1. cann
2. canst
3. cann
plural: cunnon
OE sculan ‘be obliged’
present: 1. sceal
2. scealt
3. sceal
plural: sculon
TENSE
relation between the time when the reported action occurred and
the moment of speaking
NOW
TENSE = MANDATORY FORMAL ENCODING OF TEMPORAL RELATIONS
OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present (non-preterite)
NON-PRETERITE
PRETERITE
NOW
OLD ENGLISH: two formal tenses: preterite and present
PRESENT TENSE: BASE FORM (+ PERSONAL ENDINGS)
PRETERITE TENSE: the marking depended on the type of the verb
4 types of verbs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
STRONG VERBS
WEAK VERBS
PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS
ANOMALOUS VERBS
STRONG VERBS
Indo-European vowel gradation
gradation (Ablaut) = alteration of vowels in the stems of related
words or different grammatical forms of the same word
IE: 2 gradation lines: e-gradation, a-gradation
e-gradation – potential grades:
*e ~ * ē ~ * ／ ~ * o ~ * ō
e-grade: present stem
o-grade, ē-grade, ō-grade, zero-grade: perfect stem
present stem (e-grade) :
present tense indicative,
present tense subjuctive
imperative,
infinitive,
present participle
perfect stem (o-grade) : 1st and 3rd p.sg. preterite indicative
perfect stem (ē/ō/zero-grade) : 2nd p. sg., plural preterite indicative,
preterite subjunctive
perfect stem (zero-grade) past participle
OE wrīt-an
present indicative
preterite indicative
1 wrīt-e
2 wrīt-est
3 wrīt-eþ
wrāt
writ-e
wrāt
pl. wrīt-aþ
writ-on
pres. part. wrīt-ende
past part. ge-writ-en
representative forms:
infinitive, 1st/3rd sg preterite, plural preterite, past participle
wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten
OE wrītan < Germanic * u̯rīt- < IE * u̯rei̯tIE *ei > Germ. * ī > OE ī > ME ī > NE [aɪ]
OE wrāt < Germanic * u̯rai̯t- < IE * u̯roi̯tIE *o > Germ. * a; Germ. * ai > OE ā > ME ǭ > NE [əʊ]
OE ge-writen < Germanic * - u̯rit- < IE * u̯ritIE * / + *i ̯ = *i > OE i > ME i > NE [ɪ]
OE drincan < Germanic * drink- < IE * drenkIE *e > Germ. * i /_ [+nasal]
OE dranc < Germanic * drank - < IE * dronkIE *o > Germ. *a > OE a,o > ME a > NE [æ]
OE gedruncen < Germanic * -drunk- < IE *-drn̻kIE * / + sonorant > Germ * un/um/ul/ur > OE u > ME u > NE [ʌ]
SEVEN CLASSES OF STRONG VERBS
class
Infinitive
1/3 pret.sg
Plural
preterite
Past
participle
I
wrītan
wrāt
writon
-writen
write
II
cēosan
cēas
curon
-curen
choose
III
drincan
dranc
druncon
-druncen
drink
IV
beran
bær
bǣron
-boren
bear
V
sprecan
spræc
sprǣcon
-sprecen
speak
VI
scacan
scōc
scōcon
-scacen
shake
VII
feallan
fēoll
fēollon
-feallen
fall
WEAK VERBS
new Germanic formation:
only one stem (present stem)
tense encoded with the dental sufifix
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:
Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp -(e)d
Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od
Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan
3 CLASSES OF WEAK VERBS:
Class 1: infinitive ending –an, preterite ending –(e)de, pp ending -(e)d
Class 2: infinitive ending -ian, preterite ending –ode, pp ending –od
Class 3: habban, libban, secgan, hycgan
class 1
inf.
pret.
pp.
hieran
hier-de
ge-hier(e)d
class 2
class 3
lufian
luf-ode
ge-lufod
habban
hæfde
ge-hæfd
OE -ede, -ode > ME [ə]d[ə] > NE [d], [t], [ɪd]
played, worked, embedded
PRETERITE PRESENT VERBS
one stem (perfect stem)
preterite tense – dental suffix
STRONG
PRESENT
STEM
PERFECT
STEM
DENTAL
SUFFIX
WEAK
PRETERITE
PRESENT
PRETERITE- PRESENT VERBS
present
preterite
mæg
mægst
mæg
mighte
mightest
mighte
magon
mighton
ANOMALOUS VERBS
bēon/wesan, dōn, gān, willan
bēon/
wesan,
eom
eart
is
sindon
bēo
bist
biþ
bēoþ
wæs, wǣron, bēon
dōn: dō, dōþ, dydon…
gān: pret. ēode
willan: pret. wolde….
FROM OE TO NE:
a) the levelling of the singular and the plural form of strong verbs
in northern dialects since the 14th century:
2nd form (1st, 3rd sg)
3rd form (plural)
OE
wrītan
wrāt
ME
wrīten
wrǭt
writon
gewriten
(y)writen
b) in NE the preterite form (occasionally) extended to past participle:
OE
standan
stōd
NE
stand
stood
stōdon
gestanden
stood
c) in NE the past participle form (occasionally) extended to preterite
OE
stingan
stang
NE
sting
stung
stungon
gestungen
stung
The levelling still ongoing in non-standard varieties (dialects)
NON-STANDARD DIALECTS:
•
the past participle used as the past tense form:
I see
I seen (yesterday)
I have seen
•
the past tense form used as the past participle:
I go
I went
I have went
•
the present tense form generalized:
I give
I give
I have give
•
“relict” forms:
I write
I writ
I have writ
d) the change of classes
strong verbs turning weak ( = regular) – an ongoing process
WEAK verbs turning irregular
1. keep - kept
- kept ALTERATION OF LONG AND SHORT VOWEL
OE
ME
NE
cēpan
keepen
[ki:p]
also:
hear-heard-heard
meet – met – met
bleed-bled-bled
read-read-read
cēpte
kepte
[kept]
ge-cēpt
kept
[kept]
2. set – set - set ALL THREE FORMS THE SAME
ME
NE
setten
set
sett-(d)e
set
Also:
cast-cast-cast
cut-cut-cut
hit-hit-hit
shut-shut-shut
3. tell - told - told
(y) sett-(ed)
set
MUTATED PRESENTS
OE
ME
NE
tellan
tellen
tell
tealde (WS), talde (Ang)
tǭlde
told
told
getald
(y)tǭld
also:
teach-taught-taught, bring-brought-brought, think-thought-thought
sell-sold-sold, seek-sought-sought etc.
4. send - sent - sent DEVOICED DENTAL SUFFIX IN THE PRETERITE
OE sendan
ME senden
NE send
sende
sente
sent
gesend
(y)sent
sent
t replaced d in 12th-13th century, first if the stem ended in a sonorant + d,
later extended to stems ending in a sonorant:
spend-spent-spent, build-built-built, dream-dreamt-dreamt, feel-felt-felt,
learn-learnt-learnt etc.
! went (from OE wendan)
5. make - made - made SYNCOPATED PRETERITE AND P.P.
OE macian
macode
gemacod
ME māken
ma(k)ede
(y)ma(k)ed
māde
mād
[meɪd]
[meɪd]
NE [meɪk]
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES
OE PRESENT TENSE – “real” present, universal time, future reference:
Þā flōtmenn cumaþ and þē gebindaþ – ‘the pirates are coming
and they will fetter you’
OE PRETERITE TENSE – a single act in the past, a continuous act in the
past, present perfect, past perfect
þā þā menn slēpon, þā cōm his fēonda sum – ‘when the men were sleeping,
one of his enemies came’
ic mid ealre heortan þē gewilnode – ‘I have wished for you with all my heart’
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES COMMON IN OE, BUT THEIR USE NOT
CONSISTENT WITH THEIR MODERN ENGLISH FUNCTIONS:
a)bēon/wesan + present participle –ende
þā wæs se cyning openlīce andettende þæt hē wolde fæstlīce þǣm
deofolgiendum wiþsācan – ‘then the king publicly acknowledged that he
would resolutely renounce the idols’
present participle: present stem + ende (< IE *-nt-)
Around 1200 the participle –ende was replaced with the –ing form, possibly under
the influence of the construction
been on + verbal noun –ing(e)
From 16th century on, the use of “expanded” tenses spread from the north,
since 18th century in the function of progressive tenses.
b) bēon/wesan/habban + past participle
OE past participle:
strong verbs: ge + perfect stem (zero-grade) + en
OE ge-writ-en > ME y-writ-en, y-write, writ-en > NE written
weak verbs: ge + present stem – ed/od/d/t
OE ge-luf-od > ME y-lov-ed, y-love, lov-ed > NE loved
In OE the auxiliary habban was used with transitive, bēon/wesan with
intransitive verbs, the meaning of the construction not necessarily
perfective.
In ME the auxiliary haven spread to intransitive verbs, and the past
participle lost its adjectival properties. The use became consistent with the
function of perfect tenses
c) willan/sculan + infinitive
After the year 1200 shal ‘to be obliged’ and will ‘to want’ lost some of their
modal meaning and started to be used for future time reference.
18th century: will volition in the 1st person, simple futurity in the 2nd and
3rd; shall obligation in the 2nd and 3rd, simple futurity in the 1st person.
Infinitive (nomen actionis: < *-ono-, inflected in West Germanic in the
Genitive and in the Dative singular)
OE uninflected (bare) infinitive: present stem + an
OE inflected infinitive: tō + present stem + -enne/anne (supine)
ME: tō becomes a simple infinitive marker, -enne/anne merges with –an
to –en, which subsequently disappeares.
The supine function rendered (for a while) with the for to infinitive.
1 Whan that Aprille, with his shoures soote
The drought of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
5 Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
10 That slepen al the nyght with open eye (So priketh hem Nature in her courages);
heath, heather
fugol > fowl
eage > eye
rennen ran runnen
rinnan ræn -runnen (III)
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
15 And specially from every shires ende
Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly blisful martir for to seke
That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.
cūþ > couth > couth, uncouth
Bifil that in that sesoun, on a day,
20 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage
To Caunterbury with ful devout courage,
At nyght were come into that hostelrye
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
25 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle
In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.
befallen - impersonal verb (befallen, befel/befil, befallen (VII)
cumen
cam, cām
cuman
cōm
cumen
cōmon
cumen (IV)
THE MOOD
OE: indicative, imperative, subjunctive
imperative singular: base form (SV) or base + e/a (WV)
imperative plural: same as present indicative plural
Lufe þīn nēahstan! Nim sume tiʒele!
Bycʒaþ ēow ele!
subjunctive singular:
present stem + e
perfect stem + e
subjuntive plural:
present stem + en
perfect stem + en
The use of subjunctive in OE:
• in independent sentences wish or command:
Gōd sīe þē milde!
Ne hē ealu ne drince oþþe wīn!
• in dependent clauses after verbs of desire, command, purpose,
potentiality, hypothetical comparison, concession…
Geongum mannum gedafenaþ þæt hīe leornien sumne wīsdōm.
Ic wilnode þæt þū! hām wǣre
In ME both subjunctive endings were lost. The only distinctive preterite
subjunctive form left is were.
The use of modal auxiliaries spread in ME and NE.
Modal Verbs
can, could
OE cunnan ‘know’
cann
canst
cann
pl. cunnon
pret. cūþe
p.p. cūþ
OE cann > ME can > NE [‘kæn]
OE cūþe > ME cude > NE could (remodelled after would, should)
may, might
OE magan ‘to be able’
mæg
meaht, miht
mæg
pl. magon
pret. meahte, mehte, mihte
p. p. meaht, miht
OE mæg > ME mai > NE [meɪ] may
OE mihte > ME mīhte > NE [maɪt] might
must
OE ‘to be allowed to’
mōt
mōst
mōt
pl. mōton
pret. mōste
OE mōste > ME mọ̄ste > NE mūst, must > [mʌst] must
! mustn’t = obliged to not do sth <‘not to be allowed to’
shall, should
OE sculan ‘to be obliged’
sceal
scealt
sceal
pl. sculon
pret. scōlde
OE sceal > ME shal, shaul
> NE [ʃæl]
OE scōlde > shọ̄lde > NE [ʃʊd] should
shan’t > shaln’t < shall not
wiil, would
OE: willan ‘want’
wille
wilt
wille
pl. willaþ
pret. wolde
OE wolde > ME wọ̄lde > NE wūld, owu(l)d [wʊd]
NE won’t < woll not < ME wolle = new formation, variant of wille
ought
OE agan ‘have, owe’
āg/āh
āhst
āg/āh
pl. āgon
pret. āhte
OE āg > ME ǭw > NE [əʊ] owe ‘< have the obligation/grudge’
OE āhte > ME ǭughte > NE [ɔ:t] ought (monophthongized before –ht)
Shakespeare: You ought him a thousand pounds.
own = backformaion of owner or < p.p. own < āgen 17th c.