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Chapter 2: Infancy

Module 2.3

Social and Personality Development in Infancy

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

DEVELOPING THE ROOTS OF SOCIABILITY

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Basic Familiar Expressions

• • Remarkably similar across the most diverse cultures

Nonverbal encoding

people of all ages fairly consistent among

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

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Facial Expression of Emotions

• Important nonverbal communication tool used in everyday social interactions

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Who IS that strange person, anyway?

• Stranger anxiety – Memory develops 

ability to recognize familiar people emerges

 abililty to anticipate and predict events increases 

appearance of unknown person causes fear

– Common around 6 months – Significant difference among infants and situations

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Separation Anxiety

• Distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs

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Separation Anxiety

• Universal across cultures • Begins about 7-8 months; peaks around 14 months • Largely attributable to same reasons as stranger anxiety

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Smiling

• Earliest smiles: little meaning • 6 to 9 weeks: – Begin reliable smiling – Smile first relatively indiscriminate then selective • 18 months: – Social smiling more frequent toward humans than nonhuman objects • End of 2 nd year: – Use smiling purposefully – Show sensitivity to emotional expressions of others

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Decoding Others’ Facial and Vocal Expressions

• Imitative abilities early in life may pave way for nonverbal decoding • Infants interpret others’ facial and vocal expressions that carry meaning – In first 6 to 8 weeks – By 4 months

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If you’re happy and she knows it…

• Social referencing – First occurs around 8-9 months – Intentional search for cues – Aids in understanding others’ behavior in context

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Do infants really know who they are?

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Development of Self-Awareness

• Roots of self-awareness – Begin to grow around 12 months – Influenced by cultural upbringing • Research – Rouge spot • Average awareness begins 17 to 24 months – Complicated tasks requests • Awareness of inabilities around 23-24 months

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Just Think About That!

• Theory of mind – Knowledge and beliefs how mind works and influences behavior – Child explanations used to explain how others think

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How does a theory of mind develop?

• See other people as compliant agents • Begin to understand causality and intentionality • Demonstrate rudiments of empathy • Begin to use deception to fool others

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Review and Apply

REVIEW

• Infants appear to express and to experience emotions, and their emotions broaden in range to reflect increasingly complex emotional states.

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Review and Apply

REVIEW

• The ability to decode the nonverbal facial and vocal expressions of others develops early in infants. • Infants develop self-awareness, the knowledge that they exist separately from the rest of the world, after about 12 months of age and by the age of 2, children have developed the rudiments of a theory of mind.

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134

Review and Apply

•

APPLY

Why would the sad or flat emotional expressiveness of a depressed parent be hard on an infant? How might it be counteracted?

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134

FORMING RELATIONSHIPS

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Understanding Attachment

• Earliest

animal

research suggests attachment based on biologically determined factors – Lorenz  – Harlow  imprinted goslings contact-seeking monkeys

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Understanding Attachment

Earliest

human

research suggests attachment based on needs for safety and security • Bowlby: – Attachment provides home base through qualitatively unique relationship with individual who best provides safety – As children become more independent, they progressively roam further away from their secure base

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Attachment and Love

Theories of Attachment

•

Bowlby

— stresses importance of attachment in first year and responsiveness of caregiver

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Attachment and Love

•

Theories of Attachment

Bowlby

•

Phase 1: birth to 2 months

: direct attachment to human figures •

Phase 2

2 to 7 months of age

: directs attachment to primary caregiver; distinguish familiar from unfamiliar •

Phase 3

7 to 24 months of age

: specific attachments and seeks contact/increased locomotor skills •

Phase 4

24 months and older

: aware of other’s feelings & goals/ plans activities

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

How Strange!

•

Ainsworth Strange Situation

– Widely used experimental technique to measure attachment – Sequence of staged episodes that illustrate strength of attachment between child and (typically) mother

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Do all infants attach?

• Reactions to

Strange Situation

vary considerably • One-year-olds typically show one of four major patterns (See Table 2-9 for summary)

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Attachment and Love

Individual Differences and the Strange Situation

• Ainsworth’s measure of infant attachment to caregiver – Requires infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions – Some infants have more positive attachments than others

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Attachment and Love

Attachment Categories

Securely attached Insecure avoidant Insecure resistant Caregiver is secure base to explore environment from Shows insecurity by avoiding the caregiver Clings to caregiver, then resists by fighting against the closeness Insecure disorganized Shows insecurity by being disorganized, disoriented Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Attachment and Love

The Significance of Attachment

• Secure attachment in first year is important foundation for psychological development • Some developmentalists believe too much emphasis on attachment bond in infancy – Ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts that exists in an infant’s world – Ignores that infants are highly resilient and adaptive

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Attachment and Love

Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification

Baby’s Attachment

Secure Insecure Avoidant Insecure Resistant Insecure Disorganized

Caregiver Behavior

Sensitive to signals, available Unavailable or rejecting Inconsistent Neglect or physically abuse

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Table 2-9

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

And then there were four…

• Recent expansion of Ainsworth work suggests fourth category:

disorganized disoriented

– Inconsistent, contradictory, and confused behavior – May be least securely attached

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• Does the quality of attachment have significant consequences for later life relationships?

• Yes Securely attached 1- year-old males show fewer psychological difficulties at older ages • But Children who do not have a secure attachment style during infancy do not invariably experience difficulties later in life Securely attached infants are more socially and emotionally competent later and more positively viewed • Children with a secure attachment at age 1 do not always have good adjustment later in life • Adult romantic relationships are associated with attachment style developed during infancy

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What roles do parents play in producing attachment?

Mothers • Sensitivity to their infants’ needs and desires is hallmark of mothers of securely attached infants – Aware of moods and feelings – Responsive in face-to-face interactions – Feeds “on demand” – Demonstrates warmth and affection – Responds rapidly and positively to cues

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What roles do parents play in producing attachment?

Fathers • Expressions of nurturance, warmth, affection, support, and concern are extremely important to infant emotional and social well-being

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Cultural Differences

• Differences in ways fathers and mothers play with their children occur in many US families and in very diverse cultures

How then does culture affect attachment?

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Developmental Diversity

Does attachment differ across cultures

• Research findings suggest human attachment is not as culturally universal as Bowlby predicted • Certain attachment patterns seem more likely among infants of particular cultures: – Germany – Israel and Japan – China and Canada

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Which conclusion is “Right”?

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Feldman’s Conclusions

• Attachment is viewed as susceptible to cultural norms and expectations • Cross-cultural and within-cultural differences reflect nature of measure employed and expectations of various cultures

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Feldman’s Conclusions

• Attachment should be viewed as a general tendency, that varies in way it is expressed according to how actively caregivers in a society seek to instill independence in their children • Secure attachment, as defined by the Western oriented Strange Situation, is seen earliest in cultures that promote independence, but may be delayed in societies in which independence is less important cultural value

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Hey Baby, Baby!

• Babies react positively to presence of peers from early in life and engage in rudimentary forms of social interaction • Infants’ sociability is expressed in several ways – Earliest months of life – Nine- to twelve-month-olds

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“Expert” Infants

• With age, infants begin to imitate each other – Impart information and skills from “experts” infant peers – May be inborn skill

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Mirror, mirror, in the brain…

• Mirror neurons – Fire not only when an individual enacts particular behavior, but also when individual simply observes

another

out same behavior organism carrying – Help infants understand others’ actions and to develop theory of mind – Dysfunction may be related to some developmental disorders

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Review and Apply

REVIEW

• Attachment, the positive emotional bond between an infant and a significant individual, affects a person’s later social competence as an adult.

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Review and Apply

REVIEW

• Infants and the persons with whom they interact engage in reciprocal socialization as they mutually adjust to one another’s interactions.

• Infants react differently to other children than to inanimate objects, and gradually they engage in increasing amounts of peer social interaction.

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Review and Apply

APPLY

• In what sort of society might an avoidant attachment style be encouraged by cultural attitudes toward child rearing? In such a society, would characterizing the infant’s consistent avoidance of its mother as anger be an accurate interpretation?

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DIFFERENCES AMONG INFANTS

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Characteristics That Make Infants Unique

Personality

• Sum total of enduring characteristics differentiating one individual from another • From birth onward, infants begin to show unique, stable traits and behaviors that ultimately lead to their development as distinct, special individuals

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What were YOU like?

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Erikson: Psychosocial Development

• Early experiences responsible for shaping key aspects of personalities –

Stage 1: trust versus mistrust

Trust = sense of hope and success – Mistrust = sense of harsh, unfriendly world • –

Stage 2: autonomy-versus-shame-and doubt stage

Autonomy = sense of independence – Shame and doubt = sense of self-doubt and unhappiness

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Another View: Temperament and Stabilities in Infant Behavior

What is temperament?

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

How does temperament apply to infants?

• Temperament – Refers to

how

children behave, as opposed to

what

they do or

why

they do it – Displays as differences in

general disposition

birth, largely due initially to genetic factors from – Tends to be fairly stable well into adolescence – Is not fixed and unchangeable and can be modified by childrearing practices

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Dimensions of Temperament

• Activity level • Irritability

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Categorizing Temperament

Babies can be described according to one of several temperament profiles: • Easy babies • Difficult babies • Slow-to-warm up babies • Inconsistently categorized babies Thomas and Chess, 1980

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Temperament

Temperament

• Individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of emotional response – Closely linked to personality

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Temperament

Chess and Thomas’ Classification

• Three basic types or clusters –

Easy child

: positive mood; quickly establishes routines; adapts easily to new experiences –

Difficult child

: reacts negatively; cries frequently; has irregular routines; slow to accept new experiences –

Slow-to-warm-up child

: low activity level; somewhat negative; shows low adaptability; displays low-intensity mood

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Temperament

Developmental Connections

Child Adult

Easy temperament Difficult temperament Inhibition Good adjustment Adjustment, school, and marital problems Low assertiveness, job and school delays Good emotional control Good emotional control

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Temperament

Biological Foundations and Experience

• Physiological characteristics are associated with different temperaments • Heredity is aspect of temperament’s biological foundations • Attributes become more stable over time as self-perceptions, behavioral preferences, and social experiences form personality

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Temperament

Developmental Contexts

• Gender may be important factor that influences fate of temperament • Many aspects of child’s environment encourage or discourage persistence of temperament characteristics •

Goodness of Fit

– Match between child’s temperament and environmental demands

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Temperament

Parenting and Child’s Temperament

• Some temperament characteristics pose more challenges than others • Management strategies that worked for one child may not work for next one – Be sensitive to individual characteristics of child – Structure the child’s environment to provide as good a fit as possible with child’s temperament – Avoid labeling as “difficult child”

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Does temperament matter?

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

True or false?

Behavior exhibited by girls and boys is interpreted in very different ways by adults.

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

How is this difference manifested?

• Parent-child play patterns • Different styles of activity and interaction from parents • Parental gender-based interpretation of child behavior

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Gender Differences

Adults view behavior of children through lens of gender

• All cultures prescribe

gender roles

females for males and • These roles differ greatly between cultures • Considerable amount of disagreement over extent and causes of gender differences • Differences between male and female infants, are generally minor

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Gender Roles

Gender differences emerge with age

• By age 1: – Able to distinguish between males and females – Girls prefer to play with dolls or stuffed animals, while boys seek out blocks and trucks • By age 2: – Boys behave more independently and less compliantly than girls • May be reinforced by parental choices or by levels hormonal levels

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And so…

• Differences in behavior between boys and girls begin in infancy and future continue throughout childhood (and beyond) • Although gender differences have complex causes, representing some combination of innate, biologically related factors and environmental factors • These differences play profound role in social and emotional development of infants

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Family Life in 21

Century

• Number of single-parent families has increased dramatically in last two decades • Average size of families is shrinking • Despite overall decline, half million births to teenage women, the vast majority of whom are unmarried • Close to 50 percent of children under age of 3 are cared for by other adults while their parents work, and more than half of mothers of infants work outside home • One in three US children lives in low income households

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Good news, bad news!

•

Good news: Direct benefits

High-quality

outside home produces only

minor

child care differences

Bad news:

• Infants less secure when in

low-quality

child care

Good news: Indirect benefits

• Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit

144

• Children who spend long hours lower have ability to work independently • Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class

Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development

Choosing the Right Infant Care Provider

The American Psychological Association suggests that parents consider these questions in choosing a program:

• • • •

Are there enough providers? Are group sizes manageable? Has the center complied with all governmental regulations, and is it licensed?

Do the people providing the care seem to like what they are doing?

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Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development

Choosing the Right Infant Care Provider

The American Psychological Association suggests that parents consider these questions in choosing a program:

• • • •

What do the caregivers do during the day? Are the children safe and clean? What training do the providers have in caring for children? Is the environment happy and cheerful?

144 Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Review and Apply

REVIEW

• According to Erikson, during infancy individuals move from the trust-versus-mistrust stage of psychosocial development to the autonomy-versus shame-and-guilt stage.

• Temperament encompasses enduring levels of arousal and emotionality that are characteristic of an individual.

• Gender differences become more pronounced as infants age.

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Review and Apply

REVIEW

• Child care outside of the home can have neutral, positive, or negative effects on the social development of children, depending largely on its quality.

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Review and Apply

APPLY

• If you were introducing a bill in Congress regarding the minimum licensing requirements for child care centers, what would you emphasize?

145 Discovering the Lifespan - Robert S. Feldman

Feldman_Module_2_3_f.. - Forensicconsultation.org

Transcript Feldman_Module_2_3_f.. - Forensicconsultation.org

Chapter 2: Infancy

DEVELOPING THE ROOTS OF SOCIABILITY

Basic Familiar Expressions

Facial Expression of Emotions

Who IS that strange person, anyway?

Separation Anxiety

Separation Anxiety

Smiling

Decoding Others’ Facial and Vocal Expressions

If you’re happy and she knows it…

Do infants really know who they are?

Development of Self-Awareness

Just Think About That!

How does a theory of mind develop?

Review and Apply

REVIEW

Review and Apply

Review and Apply

FORMING RELATIONSHIPS

Understanding Attachment

Understanding Attachment

Theories of Attachment

Theories of Attachment

How Strange!

Do all infants attach?

Individual Differences and the Strange Situation

Attachment Categories

The Significance of Attachment

Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification

Table 2-9

And then there were four…

What roles do parents play in producing attachment?

What roles do parents play in producing attachment?

Cultural Differences

How then does culture affect attachment?

Developmental Diversity

Which conclusion is “Right”?

Feldman’s Conclusions

Feldman’s Conclusions

Hey Baby, Baby!

“Expert” Infants

Mirror, mirror, in the brain…

Review and Apply

Review and Apply

Review and Apply

APPLY

DIFFERENCES AMONG INFANTS

Characteristics That Make Infants Unique

What were YOU like?

Erikson: Psychosocial Development

Another View: Temperament and Stabilities in Infant Behavior

What is temperament?

How does temperament apply to infants?

Dimensions of Temperament

Categorizing Temperament

Temperament

Chess and Thomas’ Classification

Developmental Connections

Biological Foundations and Experience

Developmental Contexts

Parenting and Child’s Temperament

Does temperament matter?

True or false?

How is this difference manifested?

Gender Differences

Gender Roles

And so…

Family Life in 21

Century

Good news, bad news!

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development

Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development

Review and Apply

Review and Apply

Review and Apply

APPLY

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