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Chapter 13: Stress and Health Psychology
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chapter 13
Emotion
A state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action, all shaped by cultural rules
The body
Primary emotions
Emotions considered to be universal and biologically based, usually thought to include fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt
Secondary emotion
Emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and cultures chapter 13
The brain and emotion
The amygdala
Responsible for assessing threat Damage to the amygdala results in abnormality in processing fear.
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Understanding Stress
What is
Stress
?
– A nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it; – the arousal, both physical and mental, to situations or events that we perceive as threatening or challenging. 5
Understanding Stress: Sources of Stress
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Understanding Stress: Sources of Stress (Continued)
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Understanding Stress: Sources of Stress (Continued)
Three Types of Conflict • • •
Approach-Approach
: forced choice between two or more desirable alternatives
Avoidance-Avoidance
: forced choice between two or more undesirable alternatives
Approach-Avoidance
: forced choice between two or more alternatives both having desirable and undesirable results 8
Understanding Stress: Sources of Stress (Continued)
If this man is interested in one of the three women on the couch, is he experiencing an approach-approach, approach-avoidance, or avoidance avoidance conflict ?
Stress and Illness
Walter Cannon
observed that, in response to stress,
the sympathetic nervous system
activates the secretion of stress hormones, triggers increased heart rate and respiration, diverts blood to skeletal muscles, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores, all to prepare the body for either
flight.” “fight or
Figure 14.2
Stress appraisal Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
The autonomic nervous system
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Stress and Illness
In addition to this first (and faster) track (fight or flight), the
cerebral cortex
operates on a slower track by stimulating the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
to trigger the release of
glucocorticoid stress hormones, such as cortisol
, from the outer part of the adrenals.
Understanding Stress: Effects of Stress
Sympathetic Nervous System HPA Axis
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Understanding Stress: Effects of Stress (Continued)
Stress and the HPA Axis: Prolonged elevation of cortisol is related to: increased depression, memory problems, etc.
impaired immune system, which leaves the body vulnerable to disease.
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Understanding Stress: Effects of Stress (Continued)
Stress and the Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology:
interdisciplinary field that studies the effect of psychological factors on the immune system 16
Understanding Stress: Effects of Stress (Continued)
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
1.
Alarm 2.
Resistance 3.
Exhaustion
Stress and Illness
In addition to this first (and faster) track (fight or flight), the
cerebral cortex
operates on a slower track by stimulating the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
to trigger the release of
glucocorticoid stress hormones, such as cortisol
, from the outer part of the adrenals.
Stress
In
Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS),
the body’s adaptive response to stress is composed of three stages. In
Phase 1
, we experience an alarm reaction due to the sudden activation of our sympathetic nervous system. Heart rate increases and blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles.
Figure 14.4
Selye’s general adaptation syndrome Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Stress
With our resources mobilized, we then fight the challenge during
Phase 2, resistance.
Temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, and there is a sudden outpouring of stress hormones. If the stress is persistent, it may eventually deplete our body’s reserves during
Phase 3, exhaustion.
With
exhaustion
, we are more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.
Extreme Stress
Catastrophic floods, hurricanes, and fires are followed by increased rates of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety. Those who experience significant life changes, such as the death of a spouse, divorce, or loss of a job, are vulnerable to disease. Experiencing a cluster of such crises puts one even more at risk.
Extreme Stress
Daily hassles, such as rush-hour traffic, long lines at the bank or store, and aggravating housemates, may be the most significant source of stress. Over time, these little stressors take a toll on our health and well being.
Extreme Stress
Stress can increase the risk of
coronary heart disease
, the
leading cause of death in many developed countries
. It has been linked with the competitive, hard-driving, and impatient
Type A personality
. The toxic core of Type A is negative emotions, especially the anger associated with an aggressively reactive temperament.
Extreme Stress
Under stress, the body of the Type A person secretes more of the hormones that accelerate the buildup of plaques on the heart’s artery walls (epinephrin, norepinephrin, cortisol) The noncompetitive, relaxed, easy-going
Type B personality
is less physiologically reactive when harassed or given a difficult challenge and less susceptible to coronary heart disease.
Pessimism and depression also can have a toxic effect on a person’s health.
Psychophysiological Illness and Hypochondriasis
Psychophysiological illness
refers to any stress-related physical illnesses such as hypertension and some headaches. These
real illnesses
differ from
hypochondriasis
, in which people may misinterpret normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease
Stress & the Immune System
The secretion of stress hormones
suppresses the immune system’s
white blood cells, called
lymphocytes
.
B lymphocytes
are important in fighting bacterial infections, and
T lymphocytes
fight cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Another agent of the immune system is the
macrophage
.
Stress & the Immune System
When animals are physically restrained, given unavoidable electric shocks, or subjected to noise, crowding, cold water, social defeat, or maternal separation, they become more susceptible to disease. Studies suggest that stress similarly depresses the human immune system, making us more vulnerable to illness.
Figure 14.10
Stress can have a variety of health-related consequences Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Stress and Illness
Cancer: related to hereditary disposition and environmental factors Cardiovascular Disorders: contributing factors include stress hormones, certain personality types, and certain behaviors Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): anxiety disorder following exposure to extraordinary stress Gastric Ulcers: caused by bacteria or stress?
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Stress and Illness (Continued)
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Health Psychology in Action
Health Psychology
health and illness : studies how biological, psychological, and social factors affect Major Health Risks: 1.
2.
Tobacco Alcohol and Binge Drinking 3.
Chronic Pain (lasting over 6 months) 32
Health Psychology in Action (Continued)
Does this graph surprise you?
Smokers often overestimate their risk of dying from homicide and traffic accidents, and greatly underestimate the risk from smoking.
Health and Stress Management
Two major approaches to coping with stress:
1.
2.
emotion-focused
(changing one's perception of stressful situations)
problem-focused
(using problem solving strategies to decrease or eliminate the source of stress) 34
Health and Stress Management (Continued)
Our emotional reaction to stress largely depends on how we interpret it.
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The sense of control
Locus of control
A general expectation about whether the results of your actions are under your own control (internal locus) or beyond your control (external locus)
Feelings of control can reduce or even eliminate the relationship between stressors and health.
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Your turn Suppose you have several difficult exams coming up soon. If your thought is “There’s no way I can study enough to get an A in psychology,” then what is your locus of control?
1. Internal 2. External chapter 13
Your turn Suppose you have several difficult exams coming up soon. If your thought is “There’s no way I can study enough to get an A in psychology,” then what is your locus of control?
1. Internal
2. External
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Benefits of control
When exposed to cold viruses, those who are out of control are more likely to develop colds.
Low-income individuals with high levels of control report similar quality of life to high-income individuals.
Managers and executives have fewer illnesses.
African-Americans reporting more control have fewer problems with hypertension.
Nursing home residents with greater control are more alert, happier, and live longer.
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Limits of control
Primary control: an effort to modify reality by changing other people, the situation, or events
A “fighting back” philosophy Western cultures
Secondary control: an effort to accept reality by changing your own attitudes, goals, or emotions
A “learn to live with it” philosophy Eastern cultures
Style, Stress, & Health
In comparison to pessimists,
optimists
report less fatigue, have fewer aches and pains, and respond to stress with smaller increases in blood pressure.
Optimists
also tend to outlive pessimists.
Laughter
(
but not hostile sarcasm
) may reduce stress and strengthen the immune system.
Social Support & Stress
Feeling liked, affirmed, and encouraged by intimate friends and family
promotes
both happiness and health. People with supportive friends and marriage partners eat better, exercise more, sleep better, and smoke less; thus they cope with stress more effectively.
Social Support & Stress
Social support
strengthens immune functioning, calms the cardiovascular system, and lowers blood pressure.
Even
companionable pets
help people cope with stressful events.
Aerobic Exercise & Stress
Aerobic exercise
, sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness, can reduce stress, depression, and anxiety. It strengthens the heart, increases blood flow, keeps blood vessels open, and lowers both blood pressure and the blood pressure reaction to stress.
Aerobic Exercise & Stress
Research has linked
aerobic exercise
to higher levels of
neurotransmitters
that boost moods, to enhanced cognitive abilities, and to the growth of new brain cells in mice. One estimate suggests that moderate exercise adds two years to one’s expected life.
Figure 14.13
Aerobic exercise and depression Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Biofeedback and Relaxation Training
Alternative medicine
may seem especially effective with
cyclical diseases as people seek therapy during the downturn and presume its effectiveness during the ensuing upturn.
The
placebo effect
as well as the
spontaneous remission
of many diseases may also contribute to a treatment’s perceived effectiveness. The actual effectiveness of alternative medicine needs to be established.
Religiosity and Longevity
Research indicates that those who attend religious services regularly live as many as 8 years longer than nonattenders. Investigators who attempt to explain the relationship have isolated
three intervening variables
. (1) Religiously active people have healthier life-styles, for example, they smoke and drink less.
Religiosity and Longevity
(2) Faith communities provide social support networks and often encourage marriage which, when happy, is linked with better health and a longer life span. (3) Religious attendance is often accompanied by a coherent worldview, sense of hope for the future, feelings of acceptance, and a relaxed meditative state. These may enhance feelings of positive emotions and decrease feelings of stress and anxiety.
Figure 14.18
Possible explanations for the correlation between religious involvement and health/longevity Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Biofeedback and Relaxation Training
Biofeedback
, a system of recording, amplifying, and feeding back information about subtle physiological responses, enables people to control
specific
physiological responses.
Research suggests that
biofeedback works best on tension headaches.
Simpler methods of relaxation produce many of the technique’s same benefits.
Health and Stress Management (Continued)
Resources for Healthy Living 1.
Health and Exercise 2.
Positive Beliefs 3.
Social Skills 4.
Social Support 5.
Material Resources 6.
Control (Internal locus of control) 7.
Relaxation