MERRELL, K.W., ERVIN, R. A., & PEACOCK, G. G. (2006). SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICES. NEW YORK, NY: THE GUILFORD PRESS.

Chapters 7 and 9

Chapter 7

Facilitating Change through Data-Driven Problem Solving: A Model for School Psychology Practice.

Roles of the School Psychologist

Expected Role

 Diagnostic  Refer  Test  Place  SEARCH FOR PATHOLOGY!

Future Roles

 Non-categorical diagnostics  Problem-solving model  Assessment  Intervention  Systems Change  Research  Focus on prevention

Aptitude by Treatment Interaction (ATI)

 Assumptions:  Characteristics of the person affect response to treatment  Person will learn more easily from one method than another  The method differs from person to person  The method can be determined based on data from assessment.

 Data:  Fails to support these assumptions  Individuals are not simply one variable deep (mediating and moderating variables and multiple aptitudes).

Problem Solving Model

 Focuses on the problem  Emphasis on early intervention (fix it before it gets bigger).

 Uses research and not “assumptions” to guide practice. [Evidence-based practice]  Uses direct assessment tools for measuring academic and behavioral outcomes.

 Links the assessment to the intervention.

 Outcome-focused and context-specific

Problem Solving Model

What is the problem?

Did it work?

Why is it occurring?

What should be done about it?

Basic Problem Identification

School: where student is.

• This will vary across different academic and behavioral tasks.

School: where they should be.

•Changes to make this gap smaller need to focus on all aspects of the child’s issues.

•This distance may widen and shorten throughout the span of time a child is in school.

What is the problem?

 Requires objective means to measure the problem.

 Precise  Practical  Objective  Socially valid  Problem morphs into goals (short- and long term)  Measurement must be quantifiable.

 Intensity  Frequency  Duration  Severity  Magnitude  Complexity  Resistance to intervention.

Why is it Occurring?

 Linking assessment to treatment and evaluation  Analysis of problem context and function  Hypothesis formation phase  Assess when, where and with whom the problem is better or worse.

Why is it Occurring?

Ways to Test

 Variety of Sources:  Student  Teacher  Parent  Peers  Admin  Variety of Tools  Formal  Informal

Review of the reasons for problems:

 Low motivation  Rewarded for not doing the tasks  Work is too hard.

 Work is not sufficiently explained or not enough help provided.

 Work is too different from what is expected.

What Should Be Done About It?

 Use the collected data to determine the basis of the intervention.

 Design the intervention around this data AND around research-based interventions in the literature.

 Interventions chosen for:  Relevance to the problem  Contextual fit  Likelihood of success.

 Establish progress monitoring tools and timelines

Did it Work?

 To be completed, problem should be resolved.

 Examine data collected through progress monitoring.

 Compare pre-post intervention data.

 Single-subject design techniques are good.

Chapter 9

The School Psychologist’s Role in Prevention and Intervention: Part 1: Academic Skills

Fundamentals

 Children learn and develop at different rates.

 Developmental progress varies over time and across domains.

 Interventions must be adapted to meet the individual student’s needs.

 Problem solving model cannot guarantee success BUT it should increase the probability of success.

Risk and Protective Factors

General Risk Factors

    Poverty (lack of resources)  Economic Dependence  Overcrowding  Disorganization within the family system Uncaring parents Chronic family conflict Abuse/ Maltreatment

Protective Factors

 Quality parent/child relationships  Good cognitive development  Self-regulation of attention, emotion, and behavior

Intervention Considerations

        Trustworthy and effective  For your student  In that context Relevant to the problem and context Efficient Practical Acceptable Feasible in context Produces desired outcomes Evaluated for your child in this situation

Things to note:

 Early Intervention in Reading:  Phonological awareness  Alphabetic understanding  Accuracy and fluency  Learning needs interactions and alignments between  Student (who is being taught)  Curriculum (what is being taught)  Instruction (how it is being taught)

Student (Who is being Taught?)

  What is the student’s prior knowledge: skills, strategies, perceptions, expectations, and beliefs  Task specific: information needed for that task.

 Know the foundational information  Can access needed information with automaticity  Task related: skills needed for learning.

  Can solve problems Can self-monitor  Can self-regulate Student variables that affect learning:  Selective attention  Motivation  Ability to recall

The Curriculum (What to Teach?)

 Types of curriculum:  Intended: formally recommended and adopted  Taught: what is actually taught by teachers  Learned: what is actually learned by students  Problems when significant difference between intended and learned.

Instruction (How and When to Teach)

 Should be timed for hierarchical learning (example below)  Step one = mastered  Step two = in progress  Step three = on hold  Learning facilitated through:  Explanations  Demonstrations  Guided practice  Timely correction  Task-specific feedback

Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation, Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving

 Structuring the Classroom Environment:  Organizing a productive classroom  Establishing rules and procedures  Managing transitions  Managing independent seatwork  Communicating competency with students  Teaching pro-social behavior  Contingency Management:  Systems of rewards and punishments  Established expectations  Teaching Strategies:  Interactive strategies over lecture  Peer tutoring  Cooperative Learning  Teacher questioning

Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation, Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving

 Self-Monitoring:  Teachable skill  Observing behavior  Recording observations  Self-evaluation  Self-reinforcement  Self-Instruction  Teach them to verbalize information that is unfamiliar.

 Teaching strategies for learning.

 Mneumonics  Study skills

Improve Skill Development, Fluency, and Retention of Information

Organizing Materials  Techniques:     Demonstration Modeling Cueing Prompting  Considerations     Break into smaller bits Identify what will be confusing and focus on it.

Relate new information to older information Teach to mastery  Strategies for Improving Academics  Math = number sense  Reading = phonemic awareness  Reading Fluency = repeated readings

Prevention

 Primary prevention: All students are target  Who receives intervention (nature of population)  What will be the nature of the services  How and when to be implemented  Collect data to determine who needs help  Begin problem solving model to provide help  Repeat at secondary and tertiary levels if applicable

Class Discussion

 Read the Discussion Question #5 (pg 204-205) and discuss with the group.