Transcript ppt

ECE465
FSM State Minimization for
Completely Specified Machines
Shantanu Dutt
Acknowledgement: Slides prepared by Huan Ren from Prof. Dutt’s Lecture Notes
(some modifications made by Prof. Dutt)
State Minimization of Seq. Ckts.


Removal of redundant states
Important because:




Cost(a): # of FFs  f(# of states), where f is logarithmic for
binary-encoded stated or linear for unary-encoded states.
Cost(b): logic complexity  # of states
Easier to diagnose faults if there are no redundant states
Example: Odd-parity detection
Reset
Reset
1/1
0 (even)
1 (odd)
1/0
0/0
0/1
Minimal FSM
1/1
A
0/0
0/0
B
1/0
1/0
1/1
0/1
C
D
0/1
Non-minimal FSM
Can this suboptimal design be
corrected by
systematic
techniques?
Definitions



Two states Si and Sj are 1-equivalent, if any input sequence (can be
multiple bits) of length 1 produce identical output responses.
Two states Si and Sj are k-equivalent, if any input sequence of
length k produces identical output sequences.
Example 1
0
1
A
C/1 B/0
B
C/1 E/0
C
B/1 E/0
D
D/0 B/1
E
E/0 A/1
Initial Input sequence
State. 00 01 10 11
A
11
10 01 00
B
11
10 00 01
C
11
10 00 01
D
00 11
01 10
E
00 11
01 10
2-equiv.
Examples (contd.)

Example1 (contd.)
Init. Input sequence
St. 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
A
111 110 100 101 011 010 000 001
B
111 110 100 101 000 001 011 010
C
111 110 100 101 000 001 011 010
D
000 001 011 010 111 110 100 101
E
000 001 011 010 111 110 101 100
3-equiv.
General formulation for number of i/p sequence of length k for m i/p bits: 2mk
Examples (contd.)
Example 2: Parity detection

R
1/1
A
0/0
0/0
B
1/0
1/0
1/1
0/1
C
Init. Input Sequence
st. 00 01 10 11
A
00
01 11
10
D
B
00
01 11
10
0/1
C
11
10 00 01
D
11
10 00 01
2-equiv.
Definitions (Contd.)


Basic Definition: States Si,……,Sj of a seq. ckt. are said to be
equivalent if and only if for every possible i/p seq. of any length, the
o/p’s produced by the ckt will be identical irrespective of whether the
ckt is in states Si,……,Sj when the i/p seq. starts.
 Si,……,Sj are k-equivalent for all k
Alternative (and more practical!) definition for equivalence:
 Si and Sj are equiv. if and only if for every possible i/p Ip of length 1
 (i) The o/p’s produced by states Si = o/p’s produced by Sj (i.e.,
they are 1-equiv.)
 (ii) The next states Sk for Si and Sl for Sj are equivalent.
This is a recursive definition that helps in detecting more equiv.
states once some sets of equiv. states are detected.

Definition: Implied pairs (or implied next-state [NS] pairs) of a pair of
states Si, Sj is a pair of states Sk,Sl which are N.S.’s of Si and Sj for
1/0
the same 1-length I/P Ip
Sk
Sp
Si 0/1
Implied pairs
Implied pairs
of Si, Sj
Sq
1/0
Sj
0/1
Sl
of Si, Sj
Equivalent State Detection Using the
2nd State Equiv Defn









Idea 1:
Using defn. 2’s negation—Si, Sj are non-equiv. if any of their implied pairs are
not equiv. (i.e., not k-equiv. for some k), iteratively find non-equiv state pairs
Stop when no more non-equiv state pairs cannot be found
The remaining state pairs are equivalent (a la Sherlock Holmes!—after all
alternatives are eliminated the remaining possibility has to be correct,
however, implausible it may seem to be)
This is the partitioning method
Idea 2:
Bootstrap the equiv state-pair finding process by finding a base & easy-todetect-&-verify pattern that implies equivalency, e.g., see the foll. pattern
which implies equiv. of states B and C:
0/1
Use these initial pair of equiv states to
E
1/0
determine other equiv state pairs, as well as
State pair B C
non-equiv. state pairs, using defn. 2
This is the implication table method
1/0
0/1
Definitions (Contd.)

The second definition is the same as the first one
 Necessity for (i) is clear
 Necessity for (ii), let Sk, Sl not be equivalent
=> There is an input seq. I1,……,It that produces different o/p’s
starting from states Sk and Sl
=> The seq. Ip, I1,……,It produces diff. o/p starting from Si and Sj
=> Si, Sj are not equiv.

Sufficiency
Equiv.
Si
Sj
Sk1
Sk2
Equiv.
Ip1/Op1
…
…
Ip1/Op1
Sl1
Sl2
Equiv.
O/P O1
O2
Same
O1
O2
• Consider any i/p seq Ip, I1,……,It
• After recv’ing Ip Si & Sj produce
the same o/p and fo to equiv states
(by defn) Skp & Slp
• Since Skp & Slp are equiv states,
seq I1,……,It will produce identical
o/ps from either state
• Thus Si & Sj produce identical
o/ps for any arbitrary seq, and are
thus equivalent
Definitions (Contd.)
For a set S of elements, a binary relation R is a set of ordered pairs
(Si, Sj) s.t. Si, Sj belong to S, and SiΔSj, where Δ is the actual
relation represented by R
 A relation R on elements of S is reflexive if xΔx, e.g., Δ is ≤, =,
state equivalency (SE)
 A relation R on elements of S is symmetric if xΔy  yΔx,
e.g., Δ is =, SE, sibling relationship
 A relation R on elements of S is transitive if xΔy and yΔz  xΔz
e.g., ≤, =, SE, sibling relationship
 A relation R on elements of S is equivalent if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive. Example: sibling relationship, =, SE
 A relation R is a compatibility relation if it is reflexive and
symmetric. Example: friendship, gcd (greatest common divisor) > 1

Definitions (Contd.)
Note 1: If there is an equivalence relation R on a set S, the the
elements of S can be partitioned into disjoint subsets called
equivalence classes, where elements in each subset are related to
each other by relation R:
Important concept for completely specified FSMs—each equiv.
class of equiv. state does not conflict w/ any other class, and
thus can replace each equiv. class in a well-defined way by a
single state
 Note 2: If there is a compatibility relation R on a set S, then R
defines subsets of S referred to as compatibility classes (the
elements in a subset Si are related to each other by R). These
subsets are not disjoint, in general.
Important concept for incompletely specified FSMs—need to find
maximal set of mutually compatible states for maximum
reduction in the # of states

Equivalent classes are disjoint
Compatibiity classes may intersect
Minimization Method for Completely
Specified FSMs


Two methods. Partitioning and Implication Table
The Partitioning Method:
Use condition (i) of the alternative equivalency defn to determine
initial partition P1=subsets/blocks of 1-equiv. states;
/* k-equivalency & equivalency are equivalence classes */
i=0;
Repeat
i = i+1;
For each subset/block Cj in Pi do
Begin
Two or more states in Cj are placed in the same block of Pi+1
iff for each i/p value of length 1 their next states lie in the same
block of Pi. Otherwise, the relevant states are separated into
diff. blocks based on where their next states lie.
End
Pi+1=set of all new blocks created. /* each bl. contains (i+1)-equiv states */
Until (Pi=Pi+1) /* Note: this uses condition (ii) of the alternative
equivalency defn to construct equivalent state sets */
Partitioning Method (contd)

Let Pk be the final partition
 Pk is an equivalence relation.
 All blocks in Pk contain equivalent sets
 Eliminate all but one state in each block Ci denoted repr(Ci) of Pk
and reduces the FSM as follows
 A) For arc(s) from states in Ci to a state in Cj, draw an arc (w/
the same input/output values) with same labels from repr(Ci) to
repr(Cj). Do not duplicate arcs.
 b) Resulting FSM is minimized.
1/0
0/0
0/0
0/0
0/0
1/0
Sets of equiv. states
1/0
Partitioning Method: Example 1
1/1
A
0/0
0/0
B
1/0
1/0
1/1
0/1
C
D
0/1
Non-minimal STD
P1=(A,B) (C,D)
X=0: NS: B A C D
X=1: NS: C D A B
P2=(A,B) (C,D)
No change from P1; stop
P1=(A,B) (C,D)
Reset
1/1
A
D
1/0
0/0
0/1
Minimal STD
Partitioning Method: Example 2
0
1
A C/1 B/0
B C/1 E/0
C B/1 E/0
D D/0 B/1
E E/0 A/1
P1=(A,B,C) (D,E)
N.S.’s X=0 C C B D E
X=1 B E E B A
Need to check for
each I/P of length 1
P2=(A) (B,C) (D,E)
X=0
CB DE
X=1
EE BA
N.S. will not change, but
whether N.S.’s belong to
same blocks will
0
1
P3=(A) (B,C) (D) (E)
X=0
CB
X=1
EE
A B/1 B/0
P4=(A) (B,C) (D) (E)
= P3
D D/0 B/1
B B/1 E/0
E E/0 A/1
Partitioning Method—Why It works (basic idea)?


Lemma 1: If there are two states A1, B1 that are k-equiv. but not
(k+1)-equiv then the algorithm will detect this in iteration k
Proof: By an alternate definition of (k+1)-equivalency (similar to
the alternate/2nd defn.of equivalency), A1, B1 will have at least
one implied next-state pair (A2, B2) that are (k-1)-equiv but not
k-equiv (otherwise A1, B1 will be (k+1)-equiv.)
 In iteration k, A2, B2 will be in diff. blocks (assuming lemma
true for smaller values of k—proof by induction)
 this will be detected in iter. k, and A1, B1 will thus be
separated in diff. blocks at the end of iter. k.
Theorem 1: All blocks contain equivalent states after the
algorithm terminates.
Proof: Suppose not for 2 states X, Y that are in the same block
when algo terminates, and let algo terminate in iter. m.
 By Lemma 1, X, Y are at least (m+1)-equiv.
 By our assumption, then there must be a j >= m s.t.. X, Y are
j-equiv but not (j+1)-equiv.
 By Lemma 1, the algo will catch this in iter. j.
 By Lemma 1, if we run the algo up to iter. j, the algo will
separate X, Y in separate blocks in this iter. However, algo
terminated in iter. m means Pm = Pm+1.
 If we run the algo for more iterations, its partition input
remains unchanged compared to iter. m, and it will thus
producing the same result as iter. m
 We will get:: Pm = Pm+1 = Pm+2 = ……. = Pj = Pj+1.
 Thus X,Y remains in the same block at the end of iter. j
 X, Y are (j+1)-equiv and we reach a contradiction w/ our
assumption.
 Theorem 1 has to be true
k-equiv, but
not (k+1)-equiv.
A1
A2
B1
(k-1)-equiv, but
not k-equiv.
B2
Partitioning Method—Why It works?
(detailed proofs)


Lemma 1: If there are two states that are k-equiv. but not (k+1)-equiv
then the algorithm will detect this in iteration k
Proof by induction
 Basis (k=0): Not 1-equiv. is caught at iteration 0 (before iteration 1,
i.e., when forming P1)
 Hypothesis: True for k=m
 To prove for k=m+1: Use property: If two states A1 and B1 are
(m+1)-equiv but not (m+2)-equiv., at least one of their N.S. pairs
(A2, B2) has to be m-equiv. but not (m+1)-equiv. Can be easily
proved by contradiction—do as an exercise.
A1
B1
 Hence, by ind. hypothesis, A2 and B2
m equiv.
are in diff. blocks of Pm+1 (i.e., their
A2
B2
non-(m+1)-equiv. is detected in iter m)
m
according to the hypothesis
1 equiv.
 Thus, by the procedure, A1 and B1 will
Am+1
Bm+1
be in diff. blocks of Pm+2 at the end of
not 1
iteration m+1, i.e., their non-(m+2)Am+2
Bm+2
equiv.
equiv is detected in iter m+1
Partitioning Method (contd)


Theorem 1: All blocks contain equivalent states after the algorithm
terminates.
 Proof: Assume the program terminates at iteration m
 Following lemma 1, if two states are not i-equiv. for I ≤ m, they are
put into different blocks.
 Since Pm+1=Pm, for any future iteration j (j>m), i.e., if we were to
run the procedure up to iteration j, the partition will not change: we
will get
Pm= Pm+1= Pm+2 = …… = Pj
 If any two states in Pk are not equiv  they are not j-equiv. for j >
m, they will be put in two blocks in iteration j > m  procedure will
continue till at least iteration j >m  Pm+1 != Pm, (otherwise the
partitions will never change after Pm) and we reach a contradiction.
Thus all states in a block are equivalent.
Theorem 2: All equivalent states are in the same blocks, i.e., two
equivalent states will not be in different blocks.
 Proof Outline: Follows from the procedure: If two states are in
different blocks, then they were detected as not k-equivalent for
some k, and thus are not equivalent. Thus no 2 equivalent states can
be in different blocks after the procedure terminates. Hence each
block will contain the maximal set of equivalence states, i.e., each
block is an equivalence class
State Minimization—Implication Table
Method


Definition
 Implied pairs of a pair of states Si, Sj is a pair of states Sk,Sl
which are N.S.’s of Si and Sj for the same 1-length I/P Ip
Implication Table Procedure (good manual method for small
problems)
 Step 1: Form an implication table (a diagonaled square) by
vertically listing all states except the first, and horizontally listing
all states except the last.
0
1
A C/1 B/0
B C/1 E/0
C B/1 E/0
D D/0 B/1
E E/0 A/1

B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
Step 2: Put X’s for
state pairs in the table
that are not 1- equiv.
Implication Table Procedure

Step 3: Use cond. (ii) of defn. 2 for equiv. states for other squares.

a) Put a ‘\/’ mark if the implied pairs in a cell:


either contains only the states that define the cell
or is the same state (e.g., (E,E))—singleton states
b) For the remaining cells, write all implied pairs (do not include
the same state pair and singleton states as they do not contribute
to non-equivalency) of the states defining the cell that not meet
the above two conditions
0/1

0
1
A C/1 B/0
B C/1 E/0
C B/1 E/0
State pair
B BE
C BC
BE
1/0
0/1
D
D D/0 B/1
E E/0 A/1
B C
E
AB
A
1/0
B
C
D
E
Implication Table Procedure (contd)
Step 4:
 Repeat



A1B1
Put a mark ‘\/’ if all implied pairs have the mark ‘\/’ in
AB
their cell
Put a X if any implied pair has an X in its cell
Equiv. states
If above conditions not met for a cell do nothing
A2B2
Until no change from previous configuration
(a)
Step 5: Remaining cells (w/ only implied states or ‘\/’) are
equiv.
U1V1
X
Note: Cells w/ only implied pairs form closed systems (see
UV
defn in next slide) of implied pairs w/ neither ‘\/’ nor X
marks in them. I/Ps to any state pairs in this system will Equiv. states
either:
(b)



remain in the closed system producing identical o/ps
(since these state pairs are at least 1-equivalent)
or go out of the system to either:




U2V2
Non-equiv
states
Equiv. states
C,D
A1,B1
(a) singleton states o
(b) equivalent states,
E,E
and from thereon also produce identical o/ps. Thus
these state pairs are equivalent.
• Form the largest equivalent sets by transitivity: (Si,
X,Y
Sj) and (Sj, Sk)=>(Si, Sj, Sk)
• Note: (Si, Sk) will also be equivalent from the

A4,B4
Equiv. states
implication table, since “state equivalence” is an
equivalence relation
A3B3
A2,B2
A3,B3
Singleton state

(c)
Implication
arc
Closed System
Implication Table Procedure
0
1
A C/1 B/0
B C/1 E/0
C B/1 E/0
Only B, C are
equivalent.
Choose B as the
repr. of (B,C)
B BE
X
1
A B/1 B/0
C BC
X
BE
B B/1 E/0
D D/0 B/1
D
E E/0 A/1
D D/0 B/1
E E/0 A/1
0
E
AB
X
A
B
C
D
Implication Table Example (contd)
AD
0
1
A
E/0 D/0
B
A/1 F/0
C
C/0 A/1
D
B/0 A/0
E
D/1 C/0
F
C/0 D/1
G
H/1 G/1
H
C/1 B/1
Equiv. Classes:
(AD)
(BE)
(CF)
(G)
(H)
BE
B
CF
A closed system of
state pairs w/
implication arcs
• An implication arc
AD  BE means BE is
the implied state pair of
AD
• A closed system of
state pairs is a group of
state pairs s.t.:
(a) there is a directed
path betw. any 2 state
pairs, and
(b) there are no
outgoing arcs from any
state pair in the group
to a state pair outside
this group that is not
the same state or equiv
states
C
D
BE
E
AD
CF
F
AD
G
H
CH
X
BG
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
00
01
11
10
B
A
D/0 D/0 F/0 A/0
B
C/1 D/0 E/1 F/0
C
C/1 D/0 E/1 A/0
D
D/0 B/0 A/0 F/0
D
E
C/1 F/0 E/1 A/0
E
F
D/0 D/0 A/0 F/0
G G/0 G/0 A/0 A/0
H
C
AF
BD
AF
DF
AF
DF
F
B/1 D/0 E/1 A/0
G
Equivalence classes:
(AF)
(BC)(BH)=>(CH) => (BCH)
(D)
(E)
(G)
H
BD
DG
AF
A
BG
AF
BC
AF
BC
B
C
DG
AF
BC
DF
D
E
F
G
00
01
11
10
00
01
11
10
A
D/0 D/0 F/0 A/0
B
C/1 D/0 E/1 F/0
A
D/0 D/0 F/0 A/0
C
C/1 D/0 E/1 A/0
B
B/1 D/0 E/1 A/0
D
D/0 B/0 A/0 F/0
B/1 A/0 E/1 A/0
Choose B as the
repr. of (BCH) &
A as repr. of (A F)
D
D/0 B/0 A/0 F/0
E
C/1 F/0 E/1 A/0
E
F
D/0 D/0 A/0 F/0
G G/0 G/0 A/0 A/0
G G/0 G/0 A/0 A/0
H
B/1 D/0 E/1 A/0
Equivalence classes:
(AF)
(BC)(BH)=>(CH) => (BCH)
(D)
(E)
(G)
Backup
BDD
CDD
DDD
AF
BDAF
EDD
DFAF
DF
FDD
GDD
BD
DGAF
HDD
A
BGAF
BCAF
BC
B
C
DGAF
BCDF
D
E
F
G