Transcript consumer learning

Chapter 7
Consumer Learning
7-1
Importance of Learning
• Marketers must teach consumers:
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where to buy
how to use
how to maintain
how to dispose of products
Conti…
• The reason that marketers are concerned with how
individuals learn is that they are vitally interested
in teaching them, in their roles as consumers,
about products, product attributes , and their
potential benefits.
• They are also vitally interested in how effectively
they have taught consumers to prefer their brands
and to differentiate their products from
competitive offerings.
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Conti…
• Marketing Strategies are based on communicating
with the consumer- directly, through
advertisements, and indirectly, through product
appearance, packaging, price and distribution
channels.
• Marketers want their communications to be noted,
believed, remembered, and recalled.
• For these reasons, they are interested in every
aspect of the learning.
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Consumer
Learning
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A process by which
individuals acquire the
purchase and
consumption
knowledge
and experience
that they apply to
future related behavior.
Noted points
• Consumer learning is a process; that is, it
continually evolves and changes as a result
of newly acquired knowledge or from actual
experience.
• Both newly acquired knowledge and
personal experience serve as feedback to the
individual and provide the basis for future
behavior in similar situations.
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Learning Processes
• Intentional:
• Incidental:
learning acquired as
learning acquired
a result of a careful
by accident or
search for
without much effort
information
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Learning Theories
• Behavioral Theories:
Theories based on the
premise that learning
takes place as the
result of observable
responses to external
stimuli. Also known
as stimulus response
theory.
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• Cognitive Theories:
A theory of learning
based on mental
information
processing, often in
response to problem
solving.
Elements of Learning Theories
• Motivation
• Cues
• Response
• Reinforcement (outcome)
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Motivation
• The concept of motivation is important to
learning theory. Remember, motivation is
based on needs and goals. Motivation acts
as a spur to learning.
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For eg;
• Men and Women who want to take up
bicycle riding for fitness and recreation are
motivated to learn all they can about bike
riding and also to practice often.
• They may seek information concerning the
prices, quality, and characteristics of
bicycles and “learn” which bicycles are the
best for the kind of riding that they do.
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Conti….
• They will also read any articles in their
local newspaper about bicycle trails and
may seek online information about it.
• The degree of relevance, or involvement,
determines the consumer’s the consumers
level of motivation to search for knowledge
or information about a product or service.
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Cues
• Cues are the stimuli that give direction to
these motives.
• The ad is the Cue or the stimuli that
suggests a specific way to satisfy a salient
movie.
• Cues serve to direct consumer drives when
they are consistent with consumer
expectations.
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Response
• How individuals react to a drive or cue-how they
behave –constitute their response.
• For eg; The automobile manufacturer that
provides consistent cues to a consumer may not
always succeed in stimulating a purchase.
• However, if the manufacturer succeeds in forming
a favorable image of a particular automobile
model in the consumer’s mind, it is likely that the
consumer will consider that make or model when
he or she is ready to buy.
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Reinforcement
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A positive or
negative outcome
that influences the
likelihood that a
specific behavior
will be repeated in
the future in
response to a
particular cue or
stimulus.
For eg:
• A three step process for facial skin care
based on three products (i.e.,cues)
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Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning
• Modeling or Observational Learning
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Classical
Conditioning
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A behavioral learning
theory according to
which a stimulus is
paired with another
stimulus that elicits a
known response that
serves to produce the
same response when
used alone.
Figure 7.2A Pavlovian Model of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Meat paste
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
Bell
AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS
Conditioned Stimulus
Bell
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Conditioned Response
Salivation
Figure 7.2B Analogous Model of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Dinner aroma
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus
6 o’clock news
AFTER REPEATED PAIRINGS
Conditioned Stimulus
6 o’clock news
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Conditioned Response
Salivation
Instrumental
(Operant)
Conditioning
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A behavioral theory of
learning based on a
trial-and-error process,
with habits forced as
the result of positive
experiences
(reinforcement)
resulting from certain
responses or
behaviors.
Figure 7.10 A Model of Instrumental
Conditioning
Stimulus
Situation
(Need goodlooking jeans)
Try
Brand A
Unrewarded
Legs too tight
Try
Brand B
Unrewarded
Tight in seat
Try
Brand C
Unrewarded
Baggy in seat
Try
Brand D
Reward
Perfect fit
Repeat Behavior
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For eg;
• Consumers learn which stores carry the type
of clothing they prefer at prices they can
afford to pay by shopping in a number of
stores. Once they find a store that carries
clothing that meets their needs, they are
likely to patronize that store to the exclusion
of others. Every time they purchase a shirt
or a sweater there that they really like, their
store loyalty is reinforced.
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Cognitive Associative Learning
• Classical conditioning is viewed as the
learning of associations among events that
allows the organism to anticipate and
represent its environment.
• From this viewpoint, classical conditioning
is not reflexive action, but rather the
acquisition of new knowledge.
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For eg;
• According to this view, the relationship
between the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus (the bell and the
meat paste) influenced the dogs
expectations , which in turn influenced their
behavior.
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Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Repetition
• Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus Discrimination
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Repetition
• Repetition
increases strength
of associations and
slows forgetting but
over time may
result in advertising
wearout.
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Figure 7.3 Cosmetic
Variations in Ads
Repetition
• Repetition increases the strengths of the
association between a conditioned stimulus
and an unconditioned stimulus and slows
the process of forgetting.
• However, research suggests that there is a
limit to the amount of repetition that will aid
retention.
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Conti…
• Although some overlearning (i.e., repetition
beyond what is necessary for learning) aids
retention, at some point an individual can
become satiated with numerous exposures
and both attention and retention will
decline. This effect, known as advertising
wearout, can be moderated by varying the
advertising message.
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Conti….
• Although the principle of repetition is well
established among advertisers, not everyone
agrees on how much repetition is enough.
Some marketing scholars believe that just
three exposures to an advertisement are
need:
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Conti…
1. One to make consumers aware of the
product
2. A second to show consumers the
relevance of the product
3. To remind them of its benefits.
This is known as three-hit theory.
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Stimulus
Generalization
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The inability to
perceive differences
between slightly
dissimilar stimuli.
Stimulus Generalization
• According to classical conditioning
theorists, learning depends not only on
repetition but also on the ability of
individuals to generalize.
• For eg: A dog could learn to salivate not
only to the sound of a bell but also to the
somewhat similar sound of jangling keys.
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Conti…
• If we were not capable of stimulus
generalization-that is, of making the same
response to slightly different stimuli-not
much learning would take place.
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Conti….
• Stimulus generalization explains why some
imitative “me-too”products succeed in the
marketplace.
• Consumers confuse them with the original product
they have seen advertised.
• It also explains why manufacturers of private –
label brands try to make their packaging closely
resemble the national brand leaders.
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Conti….
• They are hoping that consumers will
confuse their packages with the leading
brand and buy their product rather than the
leading brand.
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Stimulus Generalization and
Marketing
• Product Line Extensions
• Family Branding
• Licensing
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Product Line Extension
• The marketers adds related products to an
already established brands, knowing that the
new products are more likely to be adopted
when they are associated with the
established brand.
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Family Branding
• The practice of marketing a whole line of
company products under the same brand
name-is another strategy that capitalizes on
the consumer’s ability to generalize
favorable brand associations from one
product to others.
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Licensing
• Licensing-allowing a well known brand name to
be affixed to products of another manufacturer-is a
marketing strategy that operates on the principle
of stimulus generalization.
• Corporations also license their names for purely
promotional licensing, in which popular company
logos ( “Always Coca-Cola”) are stamped on
clothing , toys, coffee mugs, and the like.
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Stimulus
Discrimination
The ability to select
a specific stimulus
from among similar
stimuli because of
perceived
differences.
Positioning
Differentiation
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Instrumental
(Operant)
Conditioning
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A behavioral theory of
learning based on a
trial-and-error process,
with habits forced as
the result of positive
experiences
(reinforcement)
resulting from certain
responses or
behaviors.
Instrumental Conditioning
• Consumers learn by means of trial and error
process in which some purchase behaviors
result in more favorable outcomes (rewards)
than other purchase behaviors.
• A favorable experience is instrumental in
teaching the individual to repeat a specific
behavior.
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Instrumental Conditioning and
Marketing
• Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement)
• Reinforcement Schedules
– Shaping
• Massed versus Distributed Learning
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Reinforcement Schedules
• Marketers have identified three types of
reinforcement schedules: Total
reinforcement, systematic reinforcement,
and random reinforcement.
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Total Reinforcement
• For eg: A total reinforcement schedule is the
free after dinner drink or fruit plate always
served to patrons at certain restaurants.
Needless to say, the basic product or service
rendered is expected to provide total
satisfaction each time it is used.
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Fixed Ratio (systematic
Reinforcement)
• A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
provides reinforcement every “nth” time the
product or service is purchased (say, every
third time).
• For eg: A retailer may send a credit voucher
to account holders every three months based
on the percentage of the previous quarter’s
purchases.
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Variable Ratio ( Random
Reinforcement)
• A variable ratio reinforcement schedule
rewards consumers on a random basis or on
an average frequency basis
• For eg: Lotteries, door prizes and contests
that require certain consumer behavior for
eligibility.
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Shaping
• Reinforcement performed before the desired
behavior actually takes place is called
shaping.
• For eg: Retailers recognize that they must
first attract customers to their stores before
they can expect them to do the bulk of their
shopping.
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Conti…
• Some retailers offer loss leaders- popular
products at severely discounted prices- to
the first hundred or so customers to arrive,
since those customers are likely to stay to
do much of their shopping.
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Conti…
• Using shaping principles, many car dealers
encourage showroom visits by providing
small gifts (key chains), larger gifts (Dinner
set) to test-drive the car.
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Massed versus Distributed Learning
• Timing has an important influence on
consumer learning. Should a learning
schedule be spread out over a period of time
(distributed learning), or should it be
“bunched up” all at once (massed learning)?
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Conti…
• The question is an important one for
advertisers planning a media schedule,
because massed advertising produces more
initial learning, whereas a distributed
schedule usually results in learning that
persists longer.
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Reinforcement
• Negative
• Positive
Reinforcement:
Reinforcement:
Positive outcomes that Unpleasant or negative
outcomes that serve to
strengthen the
likelihood of a specific encourage a specific
behavior
response
• Example: Ad showing • Example: Ad showing
wrinkled skin as
beautiful hair as a
reinforcement to buy
reinforcement to buy
skin cream
shampoo
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Observational
Learning
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A process by which
individuals observe
the behavior of
others, and
consequences of
such behavior. Also
known as modeling
or vicarious learning.
Conti….
• Consumers often observe how others
behave in response to certain situations
(stimuli) and the ensuring results
(reinforcement) that occur, and they imitate
the positively reinforced behavior when
faced with familiar situations.
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Cognitive
Learning
Theory
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Holds that the kind
of learning most
characteristic of
human beings is
problem solving,
which enables
individuals to gain
some control over
their environment.
Information
Processing
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A cognitive theory of
human learning
patterned after
computer information
processing that
focuses on how
information is stored
in human memory
and how it is
retrieved.
Figure 7.13 Information Processing and
Memory Stores
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Store
Forgotten;
lost
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Rehearsal
Working
Memory
(Shortterm
Store)
Forgotten;
lost
Encoding
Longterm
Store Retrieval
Forgotten;
unavailable
Retention
• Information is stored in
long-term memory
– Episodically: by the order
in which it is acquired
– Semantically: according
to significant concepts
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For eg:
• We may remember having gone to a movie
last Saturday because of our ability to store
data episodically, and we may remember the
stars and the director because of our ability
to store data semantically.
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Involvement
Theory
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A theory of consumer
learning which
postulates that
consumers engage in a
range of information
processing activity
from extensive to
limited problem
solving, depending on
the relevance of the
purchase.
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.14
Split Brain
Theory
• Right/ Left Brain
Hemispheres
specialize in certain
functions
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Issues in Involvement Theory
• Involvement Theory and Media Strategy
• Involvement Theory and Consumer
Relevance
• Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
• Measures of Involvement
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Involvement theory and media
strategy
• A pioneer consumer researcher theorized that
individuals passively process and store right-brain
(nonverbal, pictorial) information-that is, without
active involvement.
• Because TV is primarily a pictorial medium, TV
viewing was considered a right brain activity and
TV itself was therefore considered a lowinvolvement medium.
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Conti….
• To extend this line of reasoning, cognitive
information is processed by the left side of
the brain; thus, print media and the
interactive media are considered highinvolvement media.
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Central and
Peripheral
Routes to
Persuasion
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A theory that proposes that
highly involved consumers
are best reached through ads
that focus on the specific
attributes of the product (the
central route) while
uninvolved consumers can
be attracted through
peripheral advertising cues
such as the model or the
setting (the peripheral route).
Elaboration
Likelihood
Model
(ELM)
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A theory that suggests
that a person’s level of
involvement during
message processing is
a critical factor in
determining which
route to persuasion is
likely to be effective.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model
Involvement
HIGH
Central
Route
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LOW
Peripheral
Route
For eg:
• As the message becomes more personally
relevant ( involvement increases), people
are more willing to expend the cognitive
effort required to process the message
arguments. Thus, when involvement is high,
consumers follow the central route and base
their attitudes or choices on the message
arguments.
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Conti….
• When involvement is low, they follow the
peripheral route and rely more heavily on
other message elements (such as
spokepersons or background music) to form
attitudes or make product choices.
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Measures of Consumer Learning
•
•
•
•
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Recognition and Recall Measure
Cognitive Responses to Advertising
Copytesting Measures
Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of
Brand Loyalty
Recognition and Recall Measures
• Recognition and recall tests are conducted
to determine whether consumers remember
seeing an ad, the extent to which they have
read it or seen it and can recall its content,
their resulting attitudes toward the product
and the brand, and their purchase intentions.
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Cognitive responses to advertising
• Another measure of consumer learning is
the degree to which consumers accurately
comprehend the intended advertising
message. Comprehension is a function of
the message characteristics, the consumer’s
opportunity and ability to process the
information, and the consumer’s motivation.
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Conti…
• To ensure the high level of comprehension,
many marketers conduct copy testing either
before the advertising is actually run (called
pretesting) or after it appears (posttesting).
• Pretests are used to determine which if any,
elements of an advertising message should
be revised before major media expenses are
incurred.
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Phases of Brand Loyalty
•
•
•
•
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Cognitive
Affective
Conative
Action
Figure 7.19
Brand Loyalty As A Function of
Relative Attitude and Patronage
Behavior
Repeat Patronage
High
Low
High
Loyalty
Latent
Loyalty
Low
Spurious
Loyalty
No
Loyalty
Relative
Attitude
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