Transcript Slide 4- Personality Assessment theories
Personality Theories and Assessment
Radwan Banimustafa MD
How do psychologists define and use the concept of “personality”?
The behaviors that make people different from one another are those behaviors that psychologists consider to be at the root of personality .
Personality refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and that lead people to act in a consistent and predictable manner, both in different situations and over extended periods of time.
Personality
“Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.”
Four Major Perspectives on Personality Psychoanalytic Trait
unconscious motivations specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic
inner capacity for growth
Social-Cognitive
influence of environment
Sigmund Freud pioneered personality psychology
!
Psychoanalytic Perspective
“ first comprehensive theory of personality ” University of Vienna 1873 Voracious Reader Medical School Graduate (1856-1939) Specialized in Nervous Disorders
Some patients’ disorders had no physical cause!
Sigmund Freud pioneered personality psychology
!
What is the structure and development of personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his successors (i.e.,psychoanalysts)?
According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious .
Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness:
–
the conscious mind;
–
the preconscious mind; and
–
the unconscious mind.
Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious
“the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden”
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface (Preconscious)
Unconscious
below the surface (thoughts, feelings, wishes, memories)
Repression banishing unacceptable thoughts and passions to unconscious: Dreams and Slips
Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Theory of Personality
Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of the id , the ego , and the superego .
id : the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses.
ego : restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the safety of the individual and to help the person to be a member of society.
superego : the rights and wrongs of society and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal.
Freud and Personality Structure
Id
- energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives Pleasure Principle Ego Id
Ego
- seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways Reality Principle Super Ego
Super Ego
- voice of conscience that focuses on how we
ought
to behave
Freud: superego, id, and ego
According to Freud, an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of
the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego
.
Ego
When the inner war gets out of hand, the result is
Anxiety Id
Ego protects itself via
Defense Mechanisms Defense Mechanisms
reduce/redirect anxiety by distorting reality
Super Ego
Freud:
Stages of Personality Development
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests that personality develops through a series of stages , each of which is associated with a major biological function.
.
More specifically, Freud theorized that as people age, they pass through several systematic stages of psychosexual development in their personality.
Freud and Personality Development
“personality forms during the first few years of life, rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”
Psychosexual Stages Oral
(0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth
Anal
(18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.
Phallic
(3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”
(Identification & Gender Identity)
Latency
(6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant
Genital
(puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others Strong conflict can
fixate
an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3
Freud’s Stages of Personality Development:
Oral stage : the oral state is the first period, occurring during the first year of life.
Anal stage : next comes the anal stage, lasting from approximately age 1 to age 3.
Phallic stage : the phallic stages follows, with interest focusing on the genitals.
Latency period : then follows the latency period lasting until puberty.
Genital stage : after puberty, people move into the genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.
Summary of Freud (on personality):
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a number of criticisms.
• • •
a lack of supportive scientific data; the theory’s inadequacy in making predictions; and its limitations owing to the restricted population on which it is based.
Still, the theory remains popular.
•
For instance, the neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists built upon Freud’s work, although they placed greater emphasis on the role of the ego and paid greater attention to social factors in determining behavior.
Psychoanalysis: Freud and Personality
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Were Freud’s theories the “best of his time” or were they simply incorrect?
Current research contradicts many of Freud’s specific ideas
Development does not stop in childhood Slips of the tongue are likely competing “nodes” in memory network Dreams may not be unconscious drives and wishes
Summary: Freud and Personality
Freud’s Ideas as Scientific Theory Theories must explain observations and offer testable hypotheses
(Freud’s theories based on his recollections & interpretations of patients’ free associations, dreams & slips o’ the tongue) Does Not PREDICT Behavior or Traits
Types of Personality Theories: (1). Psychodynamic approaches to personality.
(2). Humanistic approaches to personality.
(3). Trait approaches to personality.
(4). Social Cognitive approaches to personality.
(1) Psychodynamic Personality Theories:
Source of information about personality : •
Obtained from expert analyst from people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings : • •
unconscious internal conflict associated with childhood experiences.
Also, unconscious conflicts between pleasure-seeking impulses and social restraints.
Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic) Theories:
Many are called Neo-Freudians
.
All place
less
emphasis on sex.
Carl Jung
: –
Personal vs.
Collective Unconscious.
–
Balance between introversion and extroversion.
Alfred Adler
: –
Striving for superiority environment.
= motivation to master
–
Notion of an Inferiority Complex.
Karen Horney
: – Personality is
Cultural rather than biological
.
(2) Humanistic Personality Theories:
Source of information about personality : •
obtained from self-reports from the general population and people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings : • • •
self concepts, self-actualizing tendencies.
conscious feelings about oneself (based on one’s previous experiences).
The Humanistic Perspective
“Healthy” rather than “Sick” Individual as greater than the sum of test scores
Humanistic Personality Theories:
Maslow and Rogers
Humanistic approach (Third Force):
– – Rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of personality.
Rejected Behaviorist’s mechanistic view.
– More optimistic/positive about human nature.
– Humans are free and basically good.
– Humans are
inner-directed.
– Everyone has the potential for healthy growth.
– Health growth involves Self actualization: •
“Be all you can be.”
•
Given the right environmental conditions, we can reach our full potential.
Roger’s Person-Centered Perspective
People are basically good with actualizing tendencies.
Given the right environmental conditions, we will develop to our full potentials Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy Self Concept : central feature of personality (+ or -)
Humanistic Personality Theories:
Carl Rogers
Self-concept
: our image or perception of ourselves (
Real Self versus Ideal Self).
We have a need for positive regard/approval from others.
–
Conditions of worth or conditional positive regard.
•
The conditions under which other people will approve of us.
•
We change our behavior to obtain approval.
•
What we need is: Unconditional positive regard.
Anxiety signifies that we are not being true to our
ideal self
.
Well-adjusted persons: self-concept & experience.
Poorly adjusted person: self-concept & experience.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of human motives:
one must satisfy lower needs before one satisfies higher needs.
Humanistic Personality Theories: Abraham Maslow
Self-actualization
is the culmination of a lifetime of inner-directed growth and improvement
:
•
Challenging ourselves to the fullest.
• •
Can you identify a self-actualized individual?
Characteristics of the self-actualized person
: • Creative and open to new experiences.
• Committed to a cause or a higher goal.
• Trusting and caring of others, yet not dependent.
• Have the courage to act on their convictions.
(3) Trait Personality Theories:
Source of information about personality : •
obtained from observation of behavior and questionnaire responses from the general population as well as from people in therapy.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings : • •
stable internal characteristics; some emphasize genetic basis.
Outlook on humans : •
neutral - neither positive nor negative.
Comprehensiveness of theory : •
not very comprehensive.
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Trait approaches
have tried to identify the most basic and relatively enduring dimensions along which people differ from one another--dimensions known as
traits
.
How many trait dimensions are there?
How can we measure these trait dimensions?
Where do these trait dimensions originate?
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Allport
Allport : Most important personality traits are those that reflect our values.
Allport suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits:
•
cardinal : a single personality trait that directs most of a person’s activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness).
• •
central : a set of major characteristics that make up the core of a person’s personality.
secondary : less important personality traits that do not affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits do.
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Eysenck
Hans Eysenck:
found
two (2) major trait dimensions:
• •
introversion versus extroversion (quiet versus sociable).
Neuroticism versus emotional stability (moody versus calm).
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Cattell’s
Theory of Personality:
Cattell’s
Trait Theory:
–
Distinguished 3 types of traits:
•
Dynamic.
•
Ability.
•
Temperament.
Also:
–
Surface Traits: Less important to personality.
–
Source Traits: More important basic underlying traits.
Cattell identified 16 basic traits.
•
He developed the 16PF to measure these traits.
(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on the view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions:
1: emotional stability versus neuroticism:
–
calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-pitying.
2: extraversion versus introversion:
–
sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober, reserved.
3: openness versus close-mindedness:
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imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.
4: agreeableness versus disagreeableness:
–
kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative.
5: conscientiousness versus undependable:
–
organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized, careless, impulsive.
Trait Theories of Personality: Summary
Traits
:
– Characteristics or typical ways of acting
:
•
Consistency:
across situations, over time.
•
Distinctiveness:
each personality is unique.
Explain why individuals behave in certain ways. How many traits are there, and what are they?
–
Not easy to answer; little consensus.
Assessing Personality Traits
How can we assess traits?
(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)
Personality Inventories MMPI:
• most widely used personality inventory.
• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits).
• empirically derived - test items selected based upon how well they discriminate between groups of traits.
Do traits exist?
The Trait-Situation Debate
Walter Mischel
(1968) argued that: – Behavior is not consistent across time or situation.
– – If no consistency, not much point in arguing for “personality.” Thus, “personality” is an illusion.
Situationism:
•
Mischel believed that behavior is influenced more by the situation than any internal “trait.”
Person x situation interactionism:
–
Both
(a) internal traits and (b) the situation we are in are important determinants of behavior.
(4) Social-Cognitive (Learning) Approaches to Personality Theories: Source of information about personality :
Obtained from experiments, observations of behavior, and questionnaire responses from the general population.
Cause of behavior, thoughts, and feelings : •
reciprocal influence between people (cognitions and behavior) and their environmental situations, colored by their perceptions of control.
Outlook on humans : •
neutral: neither positive nor negative.
Comprehensiveness of theory : •
not very comprehensive.
Social-Cognitive-Learning Perspective
Behavior learned through conditioning and observation What we think about our situation affects our behavior Interaction of Environment and Intellect
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Social Learning Theory
Bandura
: Theoretical origins in behaviorism.
Emphasizes the role of learning in personality.
–
Classical Conditioning.
–
Operant Conditioning .
–
Modeling.
Instead of studying what’s going on inside the person (traits), study what is going on outside the person (environment).
How does the environment shape personality?
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Social Learning Theory
Bandura also emphasized the importance of cognition in personality development.
People develop a sense of self-efficacy:
–
Our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals.
–
Individuals with higher self-efficacy:
•
accept greater challenges.
•
try harder to meet challenges.
Bandura also discusses the notion of Reciprocal Determinism:
–
The individual and the environment continually influence one another.
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Reciprocal Determination Personal/ Cognitive Factors Environment Factors Behavior Internal World + External World = Us
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Reciprocal Determination
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Personal Control Internal Locus of Control:
You pretty much control your own destiny
External Locus of Control:
Luck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny.
Methods of Study:
• Correlate feelings of control with behavior.
• Experiment by raising/lowering people’s sense of control and noting the consequences and effects.
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Outcomes of Personal Control Learned Helplessness:
Uncontrollable bad events Perceived lack of control Generalized helpless behavior
Important Issues:
•
Nursing Homes
•
Prisons
•
Colleges
Comparison of Personality Theories
Personality Assessment
Personality assessment
involves the techniques for systematically gathering information about a person in order to understand and predict behavior.
Goal of personality assessment
: to obtain reliable, valid measures of individual differences that will permit the accurate prediction of behavior.
How do we
measure
“Personality”?
(1) Interview :
–
Ask the person about themselves.
–
Obtain information that reveals personality.
(2) Behavioral Observation :
–
Watch the individual’s behavior in an actual or simulated situation.
Personality Tests :
–
(3) Objective tests (questionnaire tests).
–
(4) Projective tests.
How do we measure personality?
(2) Behavioral assessment
Behavioral assessment
is based on the principles of learning theory.
Behavioral assessment
employs direct measurement of behavior to determine the characteristics related to personality.
How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment
Objective personality tests (self-report questionnaires) present the test taker with a number of specific items to which she is asked to respond, either on paper or on a computer screen.
Self-report measures ask people about a sample range of their behaviors.
These reports are used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics.
How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment Examples of objective personality measures: – the MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory). – the 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire). – the NEO-PI (the NEO Personality Inventory).
The most commonly used self-report measure is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) , designed to differentiate people with specific sorts of psychological difficulties from normal individuals.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)
Most widely used personality instrument.
– Used in clinical and employment settings.
– MMPI-2 Has several different scales
(multiphasic).
MMPI sample items: • •
‘I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting’ (FALSE) = Depression. ‘I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear’ (TRUE) = Schizophrenia.
Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem: – Extreme suspiciousness may indicate paranoia.
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment A
projective personality test
is one in which the subject is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to respond spontaneously. – pictures or inkblots.
– No clear answer.
The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response.
The observer’s responses to the stimulus are then used to infer information about the observer’s personality.
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment (continued)
All projective tests are based on the projective hypothesis which states that the individual's response to an ambiguous stimulus represents a projection of his or her own inner, often unconscious, feelings and needs.
Indirect method of personality assessment: Based on
psychoanalytic assumptions
: –
Personality is mostly unconscious.
–
People are unaware of contents of unconscious.
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment
(continued):
The 2 most frequently used projective tests are:
•
the Rorschach : reactions to inkblots are employed to classify personality types.
•
the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) : stories about ambiguous pictures are used to draw inferences about the storyteller’s personality.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Most popular projective technique.
Respond to inkblot:
“What could this be?”