Transcript chapter9.ppt

Chapter Ten
Linguistics and Language
Teaching
Research scope
• Applied linguistics
• Schools of linguistics and their influence
on SLA
• Learning strategy e.g. ( process, style,
brain-related issues left-and right-brain
functioning)
• Personality (affective factors such as
Research scope
• Self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking,
motivation)
• Social cultural factors( culture in classroom,
language, thought and culture)
• Contrastive analysis
• Interlanguage
• Error analysis
Research scope
• Syllabus design
• Communicative competence
• Language testing (practicality, reliability,
validity, kinds of test)
• Theories of SLA
• Comparing and contrasting FLA and SLA
Applied linguistics
 Relation between linguistics and
language teaching

Theoretical views of language explicitly
or implicitly inform the approaches and
methods adopted in language teaching.
 Linguistics, as the science of language,
should be of fundamental importance for
teachers of language.
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1. Linguistics and language
learning
Many language learning theories are
proposed based on certain linguistic
theories.
 In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at
the root of understanding what language
learners can learn, how they actually
learn and what they learn ultimately.
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
As Ellis (1994) points out, “whereas
much of the earlier [second language
acquisition] work focused on the
linguistic and, in particular, the
grammatical-properties of learner
language and was psycholinguistic in
orientation, later work has also attended
to the pragmatic aspects of learner
language and, increasingly, has adopted
a sociolinguistic perspective.
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
Although certain language learners (e.g.,
advanced learners and students
majoring a foreign language) certainly
benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it
is not sensible to recommend the
majority of language learners to study
linguistics while they are still struggling
with the task of learning the language
itself.
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1.1 Grammar
Do we teach grammar?
 How do we teach grammar?
 As a compromise between the “purely
form-focused approaches” and the
“purely meaning-focused” approaches,
a recent movement called FOCUS ON
FORM seems to take a more balanced
view on the role of grammar in language
learning.
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Focus on Form
Although language learning should
generally be meaning-focused and
communication-oriented, it is still
necessary and beneficial to focus on
form occasionally.
 Focus on form often consists of an
occasional shift of attention to linguistic
code features—by the teacher and/or one
or more students—triggered by
perceived problems with comprehension
or production.
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discrete- point grammar instruction
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Conducted on the assumption that language can
be broken down into its component parts and
these parts are tested separately.
Four skills( listening, speaking, reading and
writing)
Hierarchical units
(phonology,morphology,lexicon,syntax)
Integrative testing
Cloze test and dictations
 The ability to supply appropriate words
requires a number of abilities (knowledge
of vocabulary, grammatical structure,
discourse structure, reading skills and
strategy)

immersion

Language immersion is a method of teaching a second
language (also called L2, or the target language) in
which the target language is used for instruction. Unlike
a more traditional language course, where the target
language is simply the subject material, language
immersion uses the target language as a teaching tool,
surrounding or "immersing" students in the second
language. In-class activities, such as math, science,
social studies, and history, and those outside of the class,
such as meals or everyday tasks, are conducted in the
target language.

. Today's immersion programs are based on
those founded in the 1960s in Canada when
middle-income English-speaking parents
convinced educators to establish an
experimental French immersion program
enabling their children 'to appreciate the
traditions and culture of French-speaking
Canadians as well as English-speaking
Canadians'.
naturalistic acquisition
learners acquire a language with little
formal training or teaching.
 Everyday language situation (shopping,
listening to radio) constitute the initial input.

Universal Grammar
Two variables concerning the
amenability of language elements to
focus on form are the relevance of
Universal Grammar (UG) and the
complexity of language structures.
 According to the advocates of focus on
form, if an L2 structure is part of UG,
the amenability is high; otherwise, the
amenability is low.
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The problem is that no one knows for
sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here
that the study of linguistics comes into
play.
 The study of UG, which is often
considered as the theory for the sake of
theory, is now needed in language
learning research in the most practical
sense.
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The study of UG has attracted
considerable attention from many
second language acquisition researchers
because knowledge of linguistic
universals may help to shape L2
acquisition in a number of ways.
 For example, it can provide explanations
for developmental sequences and
language transfer.
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Language transfer

(also known as L1 interference, linguistic
interference, and crossmeaning) refers to
speakers or writers applying knowledge from
their native language to a second language. It is
most commonly discussed in the context of
English language learning and teaching, but it
can occur in any situation when someone does
not have a native-level command of a language,
as when translating into a second language.
Structural complexity
It can be assumed that less complex
structures have higher amenability, but
complexity is hard to define.
 Formally simple structures can be
functionally complex and formally
complex items are not necessarily
functionally complex.
 Again we resort to linguistics in order to
have a better understanding of the
complexity of language structures.
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grammar translation

In applied linguistics, the grammar translation
method is a foreign language teaching method
derived from the classical (sometimes called
traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin.
The method requires students to translate whole
texts word for word and memorize numerous
grammatical rules and exceptions as well as
enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this
method is to be able to read and translate
literary masterpieces and classics.
Grammar-translation method
 Audiolingual method
 Situational language teaching
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Audiolingual method

The audio-lingual method, is a style of
teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It
is based on behaviorist theory, which professes
that certain traits of living things, and in this case
humans, could be trained through a system of
reinforcement—correct use of a trait would
receive positive feedback while incorrect use of
that trait would receive negative feedback.
audio-lingual method

This approach to language learning was similar
to another, earlier method called the direct
method. Like the direct method, the audiolingual method advised that students be taught a
language directly, without using the students'
native language to explain new words or
grammar in the target language. However,
unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual
method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary.
Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of
grammar
Situational language teaching

Introduction Situational language
teaching is a term not commonly used
today, but it is an approach developed by
British applied linguists in the 1930s to the
1960s, and which had an impact on
language courses which survive in some
still being used today.
Theory of learning
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The theory of learning underlying Situation Language Teaching is
behaviorism, addressing more the processes, than the conditions of
learning. It includes the following principles:
language learning is habit-formation
mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits
language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented
orally first, then in written form
analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis
the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and
cultural context
1.2 Input
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Language learning can take place when
the learner has enough access to input in
the target language.
This input may come in written or spoken
form.
In the case of spoken input, it may occur
in the context of interaction or in the
context of non-reciprocal discourse .
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
Views diverge greatly as to what kind of
input should be provided for language
learners.
Authentic input
 Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1
 Premodified input
 Interactively modified input: tends to do
a better job
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1.3 Interlanguage—output
The type of language constructed by
second or foreign language learners
who are still in the process of learning
a language is often referred to as
INTERLANGUAGE.
 It is often understood as a language
system between the target language
and the learner’s native language.
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Interlanguage is a dynamic language
system, which is constantly moving from
the departure level to the native-like level.
 Can be done in two ways:
 (1) investigating the psychological,
biological or neurological mechanisms
involved in the production of
interlanguage;
 (2) investigating the linguistic features of
interlanguage.
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Concerning the linguistic features of
interlanguage, the following questions
can be asked:
 (1) Linguistically, how is interlanguage in
general different from the target
language or the native language?
 (2) In what way is lower level
interlanguage different from higher level
interlanguage?
 (3) How is the interlanguage system used
to convey meaning?
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Constructivism
Language (or any knowledge) is
socially constructed.
 Learners learn language by
cooperating, negotiating and
performing all kinds of tasks.
 In other words, they construct
language in certain social and cultural
contexts.
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2. Linguistics and Language
Teaching
Linguistics theories influence our
general orientation in approaches to
language teaching.
 Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to
better explain the specific language
items they teach.
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2.1 Discourse-based view
Linguistic patterns exist across
stretches of text.
 These patterns of language extend
beyond the words, clauses and
sentences, which have been the
traditional concern of much language
teaching.
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Focuses on complete spoken and written
texts and on the social and cultural
contexts in which such language
operates.
 Accordingly, it aims at developing
discourse competence, similar to the
well-known concept of communicative
competence.
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Communicative competence
Dell Hymes
 What a learners knows about how a
language is used in particular situations
for effective and appropriate
communication.
 Includes knowledge of the grammar and
vocabulary, knowledge of rules of
speaking, knowledge of how to use and
respond to different types of speech acts
and social conventions, and knowledge
of how to use language appropriately.
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
It is believed that language learning will
successfully take place when language
learners know how and when to use the
language in various settings and when
they have successfully cognized various
forms of competence such as
grammatical competence (lexis,
morphology, syntax and phonology) and
pragmatic competence (e.g., speech
acts).
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In the case of foreign/second language
learning, language learners are
encouraged to deal with accomplishing
actions, which are thought to help them
acquire the target language.
 The COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (CLT) and TASK-BASED
LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT) are the
best known examples of such a theory.
In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students
are expected to learn by performing
tasks.
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Task-based
Two broad types of tasks: real-world
tasks and pedagogical tasks.
 A real-world task is very close to
something we do in daily life or work.
 Pedagogical tasks are those activities
that students do in the classroom but
that may not take place in real life.
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Drawbacks
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Overemphasizes the role of external factors in
the process of language acquisition and gives
little importance to internal learning processes.
Similar to the behavioristic view of language
acquisition in that environmental factors and
input are at the very center in attempting to
explicate the acquisition process.
Overstresses the role of knowledge of
competence and functions in acquiring a
language, and hence fails to notice universal
principles that guide language acquisition.
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2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)
Noam Chomsky
 A native speaker possesses a kind of
linguistic competence.
 The child is born with knowledge of
some linguistic universals.
 While acquiring his mother tongue, he
compares his innate language system
with that of his native language and
modifies his grammar.
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Input is poor and deficient in two ways.
 (1) It is “degenerate” because it is
damaged by performance features such
as slips, hesitations or false starts.
Accordingly, the input is not an adequate
base for language learning.
 (2) It is devoid of grammar corrections. It
does not normally contain “negative
evidence”, the knowledge from which the
learner could exercise what is “not”
possible in a given language.
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Although UG was not originally proposed
to account for second language
acquisition, many researchers are
working on its implication for language
learning and teaching.
 Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to
account for second language acquisition
based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory.
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Drawbacks
UG’s primary aim is to account for how
language works, not acquisition.
 UG is only concerned with the core
grammar of language (syntax).
 The communication function is
discarded in UG.
 Chomsky is concerned only with
‘competence’, there can be little
likelihood of SLA researchers carrying
out empirical research.
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3. Syllabus Design
A bridge between language teaching
theory and language teaching practice.
 Translates theoretical understanding of
language teaching and sets up an
operable framework for language
teaching.
 The most important part of syllabus
design is selecting and sequencing
language items.
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3.1 Types of syllabus
Structural
 Situational
 Functional/notional
 Communicative
 Task-based
 Content-based
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
Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as
task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based
instruction (TBI) focuses on the use of authentic
language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks
using the target language. Such tasks can include
visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling
customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based
on task outcome (in other words the appropriate
completion of tasks) rather than on accuracy of language
forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for
developing target language fluency and student
confidence.

The core of the lesson is, as the name suggests,
the task. All parts of the language used are
deemphasized during the activity itself, in order
to get students to focus on the task. Although
there may be several effective frameworks for
creating a task-based learning lesson, here is a
rather comprehensive one suggested by Jane
Willis.
Pre-task

In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be
expected of the students in the task phase. Additionally,
the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary
or grammatical constructs, although, in "pure" taskbased learning lessons, these will be presented as
suggestions and the students would be encouraged to
use what they are comfortable with in order to complete
the task. The instructor may also present a model of the
task by either doing it themselves or by presenting
picture, audio, or video demonstrating the task.[1]

Priming is the implicit memory effect in which
exposure to a stimulus influences response to a
later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual,
semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition. It
happens, for example, that if a person reads a
list of words including the word table, and is later
asked to complete a word starting with tab, the
probability that they will answer table is greater
than if not so primed.
Task

During the task phase, the students perform the
task, typically in small groups, although this is
dependent on the type of activity. And unless the
teacher plays a particular role in the task, then
the teacher's role is typically limited to one of an
observer or counselor—thus the reason for it
being a more student-centered methodology.
Planning
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Having completed the task, the students
prepare either a written or oral report to
present to the class. The instructor takes
questions and otherwise simply monitors
the students.
Report
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The students then present this information
to the rest of the class. Here the teacher
may provide written or oral feedback, as
appropriate, and the students observing
may do the same.
Analysis

Here the focus returns to the teacher who
reviews what happened in the task, in
regards to language. It may include
language forms that the students were
using, problems that students had, and
perhaps forms that need to be covered
more or were not used enough.
Advantages

Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is
more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication,
and often provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building.
Although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the
students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and
vocabulary they want. This allows them to use all the language they
know and are learning, rather than just the 'target language' of the
lesson.[2] Furthermore, as the tasks are likely to be familiar to the
students (eg: visiting the doctor), students are more likely to be
engaged, which may further motivate them in their language
learning.
Disadvantages
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Disadvantages
There have been criticisms that task-based learning is
not appropriate as the foundation of a class for beginning
students. The major disadvantage for beginning students
is that the focus of task-based language learning is on
output, when beginning language learners often go
through a silent period requiring massive amounts of
comprehensible input. Others claim that students are
only exposed to certain forms of language, and are being
neglected of others, such as discussion or debate.
Teachers may want to keep these in mind when
designing a task-based learning lesson plan.
Task-based

作为一种教学法，具有结构性，它由教学目标(goals)、信
息输入(input)、活动方式(activity)、师生角色
(teacher/student role)、教学环境(setting)等要素组成。任
务型教学法与传统教学法之间的差异在于前者注意信息沟
通，活动具有真实性而且活动量大。英语课堂教学应具有
“变化性互动”的各项活动，即任务。学生在完成任务过
程中进行对话性互动，进而产生语言习得。正由于任务型
教学模式具有上述性质和特点，在英语课程改革不断深化
的背景下，倡导选择和运用任务型教学以期更好地完成课
程目标就成为一种历史的必然。

任务型教学认为，以功能为基础的教学活动中有
许多活动并不是来自真实生活，因此最多只能称
其为“准交际（quasi-communication）”活动
（D. Nunan，1989），而要培养学生在真实生活
中参与和完成真实的生活任务（real-life tasks）
（D. Nunan，1989）。真实生活任务教学强调直
接通过课堂教学让学生用英语完成各种真实的生
活、学习、工作等任务（即做各种事情），从而
培养学生运用英语的能力（用英语做事的能力）。
显然，真实生活任务的关键在于任务要有真实生
活的特征。

意义优先，任务完成为主，评估基于任务完成与
否。也就是说，任务应重视学生如何沟通信息，
而不强调学生使用何种形式；任务具有在现实生
活中产生的可能性，而不是“假交际”；学生应
把学习的重点放在如何完成任务上；对任务进行
评估的标准是任务是否成功完成。因此，《英语
课程标准》指出“活动要以学生的生活经验和兴
趣为出发点，内容和方式要尽量真实，要有利于
学生学习英语知识、发展语言技能，从而提高交
际的语言应用能力”。
任务型教学的基本模式

作为课堂教学的一种活动，任务型教学至少具备以下两个特点：（l）
以任务为中心．而不是以操练某种意义不大．甚至无意义的语言形式
为目的；（2）任务的焦点是解决某一交际问题，这一交际问题必须
与现实世界有着某种联系，这种联系应该是具体的，贴近学生生活、
学习经历和社会文际，能引起学生的共鸣和兴趣，激发学生积极参与
的欲望。在任务型语言教学中，教师要从学生“学”的角度来设计教
学活动，使学生的学习活动具有明确的目标，并构成一个有梯度的连
续活动。在教师所设计的各种“任务”中：学生能够不断地获得知识
或得出结论，从注重语言本身转变为注重语言习得．从而获得语言运
用的能力而不是仅仅掌握现成的语言知识点、随着“任务”的不断深
化．整个语言学习的过程会越来越自动化和自主化。
任务型课堂教学的基本步骤

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任务由以下三个部分组成：
1、任务的目标(Goals)。指通过让学生完成某一项任务而希望达
到的目的。任务的目标可以是培养学生说英语的自信心，解决某项交
际问题，也可以是训练某一项基本技能等。
2、构成任务内容的输入材料(Input)。输入材料必须具有知识性，
应以现实生活中的交际为目的，是学生在一种自然、真实、或模拟真
实的情景中体会语言，从而学习语言而不是局限与教材。
3、基于这些材料而设计的各项活动(Activities)。任务的设计由简
到繁，由易到难，前后想连，层层深入，并由数个微任务(mint-task)
构成一串“任务链”。在语言技能方面，遵循先输入后输出原则，使
教学阶梯式层层推进。
3.2 a Components of syllabus
Aims/goals
 Objectives/targets/requirements
 Non-language outcomes: affect
cultivation (confidence, motivation,
interest, etc.)
 Learning strategies, thinking skills,
interpersonal skills, etc.
 Implementation: approaches, methods,
principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.
 Assessment/evaluation
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3.3 Current trends
Co-existence of the old and the new
 Emphasis on the learning process
 Inclusion of non-linguistic objectives
 Emergence of the multi-syllabus
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4. Contrastive Analysis
A way of comparing L1 and L2 to
determine potential errors for the
purpose of isolating what needs to be
learned and what not.
 Its goal is to predict what areas will be
easy to learn and what will be difficult.
 Associated in its early days with
behaviorism and structuralism.
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4.1 Main assumptions
Language is a habit and LL involves
establishment of a new set of habits.
 L1 interferes with L2.
 Errors in L2 can be accounted for by
differences between L1 and L2.
 Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so
similarities can be ignored.
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Therefore,
 Need for careful analysis of similarities
and differences between L1 and L2.
 Teachers should focus on areas of
negative transfer.
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4.2 Drawbacks
Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts
but lack of psychological
considerations.
 Cannot predict all errors while some
predicted errors do not occur.
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5. Error Analysis
Many errors made by L2 learners were
caused by factors other than L1
interference.
 Errors are not just to be seen as
something to be eradicated.
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5.1 Error and mistake
Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/
competence
 Mistake: learner’s failure to perform
their competence
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5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual
Interlingual errors (transfer errors):
misuse of an item because of L1
influence.
 Intralingual errors (developmental
errors): within L2 (e.g.
overgeneralization)
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5.3 Procedure of error analysis
Recognition
 Description
 Explanation

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5.4 Problems
Rely on errors to study how L2 is
learned – inadequate.
 Difficult to determine what an error is:
There are so many people live around
here.
 Over-stresses production error but fails
to account for error avoidance: learner
avoids a certain word or structure.

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6. Corpus
Language corpora make it possible for
materials developers to select
authentic, natural and typical language.
 The two most important factors in a
corpus are the size and types of texts
selected.
 Usually the uses that will be made of
the corpus decide the number and type
of texts in a corpus.

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6.1 Types
General
 Specialized
 Sample
 Monitor

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6.2 Uses
Frequency
 Context and co-text
 Grammatical
 Collocation and
phraseology
 pragmatics

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Sample copora

Most existing corpora are sample corpora,
which try to sample language data in a
balanced way and remain static once they
are created.
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Monitor copora

a monitor corpus is constantly (e.g.
annually, monthly or even daily)
supplemented with fresh material and
keeps increasing in size, though the
proportion of text types included in the
corpus remains constant. Corpora of this
type are typically much larger than sample
corpora.

The Bank of English (BoE) is widely
acknowledged to be an example of a
monitor corpus. It has increased in size
progressively since its inception in the
1980s (Hunston 2002: 15) and is around
524 million words at present

机译系统可划分为基于规则（ Rule-Based ）
和基于语料库（Corpus-Based）两大类。
前者由词典和规则库构成知识源；后者由
经过划分并具有标注的语料库构成知识源，
既不需要词典也不需要规则，以统计规律
为主。

目前，Google 的在线翻译已为人熟知，其
背后的技术即为基于统计的机器翻译方法，
基本运行原理是通过搜索大量的双语网页
内容，将其作为语料库，然后由计算机自
动选取最为常见的词与词的对应关系，最
后给出翻译结果。