Computing Machinery and Intelligence Written by A. M. Turing Summarized by Kim Kyoung-Soo
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Transcript Computing Machinery and Intelligence Written by A. M. Turing Summarized by Kim Kyoung-Soo
Computing Machinery and
Intelligence
Written by A. M. Turing
Summarized by Kim Kyoung-Soo
The Imitation Game
The Question: “Can machines think?”
Imitation game: the new form of the problem
Played with three people, a man(A), a woman(B),
and an interrogator(C)
The interrogator is to determine which of the
other two is the man/woman
The question “What will happen when a machine
takes the part of A in this game” replace the
original question, “Can machines think?”
Critique of the New Problem
“Is the new question a worthy one to
investigate?”
Drawing a fairly sharp line between the physical
and the intellectual capacities of a man
Q ‘n A method excludes the irrelevant disabilities
Are the odds weighted too heavily against the
machine?
At least, if a machine can, we need not troubled by that.
The Machine Concerned in the
Game
To specify what the word “machine” means
Only permit digital computers to take part in our
game
Ask whether there are imaginable computers
which would do well
The Human Computer
A definition for a “thinking machine”
The machines are intended to carry out any
operations which could be done by a “human
computer”.
The human computer
is supposed to be following fixed rules
has the rules supplied in a book
has an unlimited supply of paper on which he
does his calculations
Digital Computer
To avoid danger of circularity of argument, we
give an outline of the digital computer, using
the explanation of the human computer.
Regarded as consisting of three parts
(i) Store
(ii) Executive unit
(iii) Control
Three Parts of a Digital Computer
The store
a store of information: correspond to the human
computer’s paper or the book of rules(table of
instructions)
The executive unit
the part which carries out the various individual
operations involved in a calculation
The control
the part which sees that the instructions are
obeyed correctly and in the right order
The Information in the Store
Usually broken into packets of moderately
small size, e.g. ten decimal digits
“Add the number stored in position 6809 to that in
4302 and put the result back into the latter storage
position” ===> ‘6809430217’
“If position 4505 contains 0 obey next the instruction
stored in 6707, otherwise continue straight on.”
Constructing instruction tables is described as
“programming”
Some Related Issues About D.C.
Digital computer with a random element
“Throw a die and put the resulting number into
store 1000”
Sometimes such a machine is described as having
free will.
Infinitive capacity computers
There is no theoretical difficulty in the idea of a
computer with an unlimited store - we can imagine
more and more being added as required.
Discrete-State Machine
The digital computers may be classified
amongst the “discrete-state machines.”
The discrete-state machine
Moves by sudden jumps or clicks from one quite
definite state to another
States are sufficiently different for the possibility
of confusion
Given the initial state of the machine and the
input signals, it is always possible to predict all
future states
Discrete-State Machine(cont’d)
An example of a D-S machine
Last State
q1 q2 q3
Input
i0
i1
q2 q3 q1
q1 q2 q3
q1, q2, q3: internal state of the machine
i0, i1: input signal
output signal(light):
State q1 q2 q3
Output o0 o0 o1
University of Digital Computers
Universal machine
A digital computer can mimic the discrete-state
machine’s calculation(to predict what it will do).
This special property of digital computers is
described by saying that they are universal
machines.
The main question reconsideration
see page 19.(CT)
Contrary Views on the Main
Question
The theological objection
the “Heads in the Sand” objection
The mathematical objection
The argument from consciousness
Arguments from various disabilities
Lady Lovelace’s objection
Argument from continuity in the nervous system
The argument from informality of behaviour
The argument from extrasensory perception
The Theological Objection
“Thinking is a function of man’s immortal
soul. Hence no animal or machine can think.”
The argument quoted above implies a serious
restriction of the omnipotence of the Almighty.
We might expect that He would only exercise this
power in conjunction with a mutation which
provided the elephant with an appropriately
improved brain to minister to the needs of this soul.
The “Heads in the Sand” Objection
“The consequences of machines thinking
would be too dreadful. Let us hope and believe
that they cannot do so.”
We like to believe that Man is in some subtle way
superior to the rest of creation.
This argument is sufficiently substantial to require
refutation. Consolation would be more appropriate:
perhaps this should be sought in the transmigration
of souls.
The Mathematical Objection
A number of results of mathematical logic
shows that there are limitations to the powers
of discrete-state machines.
Ex. Goedel’s theorem(1931)
In any sufficiently powerful logical system, statements
can be formulated which can neither be proved ore
disproved within the system, unless possibly the system
itself is inconsistent.
It has only been stated that no such limitations
apply to the human intellect.
The Argument from Consciousness
“A machine can only write it but doesn’t know
that it had written it.”
It is in fact the solipsist point of view.
The only way by which one could be sure that a
machine thinks is to be the machine and to feel
oneself thinking.
Likewise according to this view the only way to
know that a man thinks is to be that particular
man.
Cf. viva voce game
Arguments from Various Disabilities
“You will never be able to make a machine to
do X”
Be kind, resourceful, make mistakes, enjoy
strawberry and cream, be the subject of its own
thought, ……
They are mostly founded on the principle of
scientific induction - The machines a man has seen
are ugly, designed for a very limited purpose,….
Lady Lovelace’s Objection
Comes from a memoir by Lady Lovelace(1842)
“The Analytical Engine has no pretension to
originate anything. It can do whatever we
know how to order it to perform”
Hartree(1949): “This does not imply that it may
not be possible to construct electronic equipment
which will ‘think for itself’, which would serve as
a basis for ‘learning’.
Argument from Continuity in the
Nervous System
“The nervous system is certainly not a
discrete-state machine(continuous system). So
a D-S machine cannot mimic the behavior of
the nervous system.”
A digital computer would be quite capable of
giving the right sort of answer, although it cannot
predict exactly what a continuous system answers
to a problem.
Ex. Differential analyser
The Argument from Informality of
Behavior
“It is not possible to produce a set of rules
purporting to describe what a man should do
in every conceivable set of circumstances.”
“Man has no definite set of rules of conduct
by which he regulated his life”
We cannot convince ourselves of the absence of
complete laws of behavior as of complete rules of
conduct
Learning Machines
Our problem is to find out how to programme
these machines to play the game.
Three components of the process
The initial state of the mind, say at birth
The education to which it has been sujected
Other experience
Instead of trying to produce a programme to
simulate the adult mind, rather try to produce
one which simulates the child’s
Learning Machines(cont’d)
Punishment and rewards
events which shortly preceded the occurrence of a
punishment signal are unlikely to repeated
a reward signal increased the probability of
repetition of the events
“Unemotional” channels of communication
“Human fallibility” is likely to be omitted in a
rather natural way.
Which Are The Best Ones to Start
With?
Abstract activity like the playing of chess
vs. practical activity such as the best sense
organs that money can buy, understanding and
speaking English, etc.