Transcript Self and Virtue in Greek Philosophy

Self and Virtue in
Greek Philosophy
Ancient Athens
Socrates
Socrates
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What is courage?
Laches (1): “he is a
man of courage who
does not run away,
but remains at his
post and fights
against the enemy”
Socrates
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But this is too narrow:
other kinds of
courage
Examples?
Too Narrow— and too broad
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There are other kinds of courage
But also, fighting isn’t always courageous
Fighting and
not running
away
Courage
Better Definitions
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Laches (2): “a sort of endurance of the
soul”
But what sort of endurance?
Laches (3): “a wise endurance of the soul”
Better Definitions?
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Laches (3): “a wise endurance of the soul”
But this is too broad.
Foolish endurance often seems braver
than wise endurance.
Too Narrow— and too broad
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Sometimes, wise endurance isn’t courageous
But also, sometimes, foolish endurance is
Wise
endurance
Courage
Nicias’s Definition
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Nicias: “the knowledge of
that which inspires fear or
confidence”
What about the courage
of animals?
Nicias: courage is more
than fearlessness.
Word to the wise: Faced
with a counterexample,
draw a distinction!
Socrates’s Objection
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Then courage = all of virtue.
Hope and fear are directed at future
But there is no division between
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Knowledge of past
Knowledge of present
Knowledge of future
So, courage = knowledge of good and evil
= virtue as a whole
Unity of the virtues
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Unity of the virtues: courage,
piety, wisdom, self-control,
justice, etc., are the same
Virtue
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= knowledge of good and evil
= knowledge of right and wrong
= knowing what to seek and
what to avoid
= knowing what to do and what
not to do
Puzzle: Weakness of will
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Weakness of will (akrasia) = knowing the
better and doing the worse
Paul: “For that which I do I allow not: for
what I would, that do I not; but what I hate,
that I do. . . . For the good that I would I do
not; but the evil which I would not, that I
do.” (Romans 7:15-19)
Weakness of Will: Example
I know I should
exercise
But I don’t
want to
So, I don’t
Knowing the better
Doing the worse
Socrates: no weakness of will
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Socrates: weakness of will is impossible.
Virtue = knowledge of good and evil
But weakness of will involves knowing
good and not doing it
Socrates would have to say that’s virtuous
But plainly it’s not: it’s not virtuous to do
evil
Examples?
Socrates: no weakness of will
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Say John displays weakness of will
Weakness of will involves knowing good and not
doing it
He knows he should exercise, but doesn’t
Socrates: no weakness of will
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Virtue = knowing what to
do and what not to do
He knows what to do
But he doesn’t do it
So, John is virtuous?
But that’s absurd
So, weakness of will is
impossible
John doesn’t really know
what to do
Plato
Plato: weakness is possible
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<== ? ==>
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“Consider a case of conflict, in which the person
who has willpower resists his desires and the
person who is weak of will gives in to them. A
person in such a situation seems to be at war
with himself.”
Plato: weakness is possible
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“There must, then, be different parts of the
soul (aspects of the personality, parts of
the self) that are fighting each other.”
I should do a
I want to do a
(or, at least,
I want to want
to do a)
I don’t want to do a
Plato’s Divided Soul
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Rational element
(reason): thinks
Appetitive element
(desire): wants
Spirited element
(will): feels
Soul as Chariot
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“Of the nature of the soul, though her true form
be ever a theme of large and more than mortal
discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure.
And let the figure be composite- a pair of winged
horses and a charioteer. Now the winged horses
and the charioteers of the gods are all of them
noble and of noble descent, but those of other
races are mixed; the human charioteer drives
his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of
noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of
ignoble breed; and the driving of them of
necessity gives a great deal of trouble to him.”
Plato’s Soul
Kinds of Conflict
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Conflict: parts of the soul pull in different
directions
Rational vs. appetitive element: Reason
vs. desire
Appetitive vs. spirited element: Desire vs.
will
Rational vs. spirited element: Reason vs.
will
Kinds of Conflict
Reason
Desire
Will
Virtue as Rational Control
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Resolution: Control by the rational part of the
soul.
Virtue: Subjecting the horses, especially the
ignoble, rebellious horse, to the firm control of
the driver.
Each must play its proper role.
The rational element must dominate the
others for a person to be virtuous and happy.
Rationality and Balance
Virtue as Balance
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Each part of the soul has a role to play, a
function
Virtue = each part playing its proper role
Weakness of will = knowing proper roles,
but not being strong enough to force the
elements into them
Aristotle
Aristotle: Goods
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Instrumental goods:
desired for the sake
of something else
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Intrinsic goods:
desired for their own
sake
Happiness
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One thing is always desired for its own
sake, never for the sake of something
else: happiness
Happiness (eudaimonia) = living well =
flourishing
What does that require? Prosperity and
luck, yes, but more
Living well
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What is it to live
well?
Analogies:
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A good knife cuts
well
A good eye sees
well
A good teacher
teaches well
Living well
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A good person
fulfills his/her
function well
Function
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What is the function of a human being?
A thing’s function stems from what is
special about it: what distinguishes it from
other things
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Knives cut: sharpness —> cutting
Eyes see: ability to see —> seeing
Teachers teach: ability to teach —> teaching
Our Function
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What is special
about people?
Our Function
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What is special
about people?
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We act according
to rational plans
Virtue
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Our function is rational
activity
A good person succeeds at
rational activity
Virtue
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Virtue = excellence
Two kinds
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Excellence in rationality:
intellectual virtue
Excellence in activity:
moral virtue
Intellectual and Moral Virtue
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Virtue = excellence in function =
Excellence in rational activity
Rational
Activity
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Intellectual virtue
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Moral virtue
Becoming virtuous
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Intellectual virtue can
be taught
Moral virtue can’t be
Moral virtue isn’t just
knowing, but doing
Weakness of will
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One may have intellectual
virtue without moral virtue
One may know what to
do but not do it
A weak-willed person
lacks the ability to do the
right thing, even when
he/she knows what it is
How can we develop
willpower?
How to become good?
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It requires developing
habits
We become good by
doing good things
What should I do?
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An act is right if it is something a virtuous
person would tend to do
What should I do? <== What kind of
person should I be?
Practical Wisdom
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A good person consistently does the right
thing at the right time, in the right way, and
for the right reason.
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There is no rule for becoming good, or for
distinguishing good from bad, right from
wrong.
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Practical wisdom: ability to draw the right
distinctions and tell right from wrong.
Intuitionism
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Pluralism: Goods differ in kind
Conflict: They sometimes conflict
Complexity: There are no exact rules for
deciding the outcomes of these conflicts
Moral Rules
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At best, practical rules are fainthearted:
ceteris paribus, other things being equal
Finding balance among competing goods
requires judgment-- practical wisdom
Virtue as a Mean
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Virtues are means between extremes
Virtues constrain desires
But we may constrain too little or too much
We must give in to desire in the right
circumstances, in the right way, for the
right reason, etc.
Practical wisdom allows us to find the
mean
Virtues and Vices
Drive
Fear
Pleasure
Material goods
Self-esteem
Anger
Sociability
Boasting
Humor
Drive for honor
Spending
Too little
cowardly
self-indulgent
stingy
vain
short-tempered
obsequious
boastful
clownish
ambitious
grudging
Just right
courageous
self-controlled
generous
high-minded
gentle
friendly
truthful
witty
motivated
magnificent
Too much
rash
insensitive
extravagant
small-minded
apathetic
grouchy
self-deprecating
boring
un-ambitious
vulgar